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CDRflSIGHT DEPOSIT. 



STUDIES IN PSYCHOLOGY 

BY STUDENT TEACHERS FOR TEACHERS 
IN TRAINING AND SERVICE 



DIRECTED AND EDITED BY 

Er A. KIRKPATRICK 

Head of the Department of Psychology and 

Child Study, State Normal 

School, Mtchburo 




BOSTON 

RICHARD G. BADGER 

THE GORHAM PRESS 



Copyright, 1918, by Richakd G. Badoeb 



All Rights Reserved 






©GU5n279 

Made in the United States of America 



Tlie Gorham Press, Boston, U.S.A. 



INTRODUCTION 

The introduction to the first of these studies, which was 
made and printed in pamphlet form by the class of 1909 of 
the State Normal School at Fitchburg, Mass., gives a good 
idea of the way in which all were prepared. 

" The following discussion of habit is the result of an ex- 
periment in teaching psychology in an inductive, expressive 
and cooperative way to three divisions of a class of begin- 
ning students in a normal school. 

The general problem placed before the class at the be- 
ginning was stated as being " To find how habits may be 
most quickly and permanently formed and how they may 
be most easily and quickly changed." It was suggested that 
all working together might perhaps prepare an article as 
good or better than any that had been prepared by one 
person. The writer suggested experiments and observations 
to be made and questioned statements that were formulated 
so as to make students describe more carefully and accu- 
rately their own facts and opinions. He encouraged dis- 
cussion of disputed points, but left the students to determine 
for themselves the facts and conclusions. 

The subject was divided into three general topics, first, 
nature of habit; second, facts and laws of habit formation 
and the results and relations of habits ; third, habit break- 
ing. All the students wrote out descriptions of habits they 
had observed in themselves and others. They also made at- 
tempts to break some habit of their own, keeping a record 
of progress, and later they tried to lead some one else to 



4r Introduction 

break or form a habit, and to induce an individual child with 
whom they were working to modify some habit. 

To determine more definitely the laws of habit formation 
all practiced an exercise arranged by Prof. Lough of New 
York University. It consisted of a test sheet containing ten 
lines of letters and a " key sheet " upon which were pairs of 
letters, the left hand numbers of which were arranged alpha- 
betically. A blank sheet was placed under the first hori- 
zontal line of the test sheet and under each letter was written 
the letter found opposite the same letter on the key. The 
time for writing one line designated as a " trial " was re- 
corded in seconds. The letters written were then folded 
under and the second line was used in a similar way. This 
was repeated for all the lines, the ten constituting the 
" test." One or more tests were taken each day and the 
results were averaged by committees, and this data, together 
with subjective observations, was discussed. Later several 
tests were made with a " key " in which the pairs of letters 
were differently arranged. 

After the first general topic had been discussed in class 
each individual wrote upon it, then a committee was ap- 
pointed to combine the good points of all the papers into 
one. This was read to the division and freely criticized, 
disputed points being decided, after discussion, by a vote. 
After the other two topics had been worked over in this 
manner each student wrote a complete paper on the subject, 
and a committee worked over the papers prepared by the 
three previous committees into a discussion of the whole sub- 
ject of habit. This was also read to the class and criti- 
cized. At first it was suggested that the division preparing 
the best paper should have the results of its study printed, 
but later it was decided by the class to appoint a committee 
to combine the papers of the three divisions, which were 



Introduction S 

found to differ considerably in their observations, conclu- 
sions and arrangement of topics. The following is the re- 
sult of their labors, revised to some extent by another com- 
mittee. 

About five weeks with four recitations per week were spent 
by the class upon this topic. At the close most of the class 
thought that they had produced something better than any 
one thing that they had read, or at least that it meant more 
to them. The present writer agrees that they got more out 
of the work than they could from studying and reading the 
writings of others. How much other students can get from 
the printed results of their work is a question to be decided 
later. Teachers of psychology will, perhaps, doubt whether 
so much time (about one- fourth that given to psychology 
the first year) should be spent upon one topic, important 
though it be. The experiment has, at any rate, been an 
interesting one, and it is hoped that this little pamphlet may 
prove a help and inspiration, not only to the members oi 
the class publishing it, but to subsequent classes and per- 
haps also to students in other schools." 

The method of preparing the other studies was much the 
same and succeeding classes found the pamphlets compiled 
by their predecessors of much interest and value. 

The original pamphlets have been modified slightly in the 
interest of accuracy but the writer has substituted his own 
expressions for those of his students only when necessary. 
The reason for this is that psychology, even more than other 
subjects, is to many students little more than a collection 
of words of indefinite meaning unillumined by reference to 
their own experiences, while the statement of psychological 
truths in the words of persons of approximately their own 
level of mental development is much more likely to relieve 
this unfortunate state of mind than the more technical Ian- 



6 Introduction 

gnage of the professional psychologist. This fact has been 
impressed upon the writer and also upon other teachers of 
psychology who have placed these studies in the hands of 
their students. 

Most of the truths ordinarily given in elementary psy- 
chologies with numerous applications and illustrations are 
embodied in these studies in a form that is sure to be under- 
stood. This does not, however, mean that these truths will 
be fully appreciated by students who merely read them. On 
the contrary their greatest value is gained only when stu- 
dents are stimulated by their reading to observe, experi- 
ment and express for themselves. The instructor in psy- 
chology or the leader of a reading circle should encourage 
this practice as much as possible. At the close of these 
studies will be found a number of suggestions to this end. 

E. A. KlKKPATBICK 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTEB PAGE 

Inteoduction & 

I Habit 11 

Nature of Habit — Formation of Habit — Habit Break- 
ing — Summary. 

II Memory 24« 

The Nature and Use of Memory — Aids in Learning 
and Methods in Acquiring — Aids in Recalling, Recog- 
nizing and Verifying — Age, Sex and Individual DiflFer- 
ences — Summary. "~" 

III Imagination 48 

Nature and Use — Mental Images — Kinds of Imagina- 
tion — Association of Ideas. 

IV Attention 61 

Nature of Attention — Importance of Attention — Kinds 
of Attention — Types of Attention — Attention and 
the Mental Processes — Laws of Attention — Condi- 
tions Affecting Attention — How to Secure and Hold 
the Attention — Development of Attention. 

V Concepts . 80 

Nature of Concepts — Formation of Concepts Inci- 
dentally — Judgment and Reasoning — Formation of 
Concepts through Teaching — Teaching the Use of Con- 
cepts, 

VI Perception 108 

Introduction — Sensory and Motor Factors in Percep- 
tion — Mental Factors in Perception — Illusions — 
Space Perception — Conditions Favoring Perception — 
Development of Perception — Apperception. 
7 



8 Contents 

CHAPTER PAGE 

VII Feeling 133 

Nature and Uses of Feeling — Varieties and Classes of 
Feeling — Sources of Feeling — The Senses as Sources 
of Feeling — Physiological Processes or Organic Sensa- 
tions — Instinctive Feeling — Ideas as a Source of Feel- 
ing — Control of Feeling — Laws Governing Feeling — 
Cultivation of Feeling — 'Summary. 

VIII Will 160 

Importance of Will — Nature of Will — Control of 
Movement — The Control of Sensations — Control of 
Feeling — Control of Memory — Control of Mental Im- 
ages — The Making and Carrying Out of Decisions — 
Strength of Will — Freedom of Will — Training the 
Will. 

Appendix 187 

Index 193 



STUDIES IN PSYCHOLOGY 



I 

A STUDY OF HABIT 

NATURE OF HABIT 

EVERY indiAddual has numerous habits, some of which 
are good, some bad. In the earliest stages of infancy 
a child begins to form habits and they continue to multiply 
throughout his life. Children's characters are moulded dur- 
ing their school life, and as all children enter upon their 
school career with both good and bad habits, it is necessary 
that teachers should know how best to deal with them. 

How many times at a social gathering one has heard the 
remark, " I have been in the habit of going to bed at nine 
o'clock lately, and I am so sleepy that I can hardly keep my 
eyes open." What does this person mean by habit? Habit 
is the acquired tendency/ of mind or body to do the same 
or similar things under the same or similar conditions, when 
the result produces satisfaction. 

It is through the study of this subject that our attention 
has been drawn to the following observations and illustra- 
tions of general truths. 

The Normal students take their " Responsive Readings " 
with their singing books to chapel every morning. In the 
afternoon when going to music they often take both books 
instead of only the one which they need. By repeating this 

.11 



18 Studies m Psychology 

act every morning they have formed the habit and do it un- 
consciously in the afternoon. 

When one of the students, who lives at the dormitory dur- 
ing school year, was at home, she was accustomed to taking 
a short cut from the main street to reach her house. 
Shortly after arriving home one Friday, she was told that 
the way was closed to all traffic ; but about two hours later 
as she was on her way home from the main street, she started 
to take the short cut, as had been her custom for years, and 
never thought of the way being closed until she was con- 
fronted by the sign, " No trespassing." 

Another girl said, " Whenever I wash the dishes at night 
I can always tell by whom the dish-cloth has been last used, 
by the place in which I find it. One sister hangs it on the 
hot water faucet, another sister leaves it in a bunch on the 
shelf, another always hangs it up very neatly behind the 
stove, while I lay it on the shelf behind the stove." 

The word habit comes from the Latin word habeo, mean- 
ing I have. Habit is an ever-present tendency to act, rather 
than the specific act itself. The act of repetition is not in 
itself the habit, for the habit is a continuous inner tendency 
revealed only when the proper associations cause the act. 
The case is similar to that of two towns with telegraphic 
communication. So long as the wire and instruments are in 
good condition, messages sent from one town will reach the 
other. The connection is constant even when not in use* 
If there is no use or repair for a long time the instruments 
may become rusty, or the wire broken ; then the connection 
is at an end. In this illustration the connection is analogous 
to the habit, and the sending of the messages, to repetition. 

Habit is an acquired individual tendency, as opposed to 
instinct, which is an inherited tendency common to the race. 
Habit often begins with a voluntary action and by repe- 



A Study of Habit 18 

tition becomes involuntary, while instinct is always involun- 
tary when it first appears in the individual. Yawning when 
sleepy, the crying of a baby, and the desire to escape from 
danger are instincts ; but writing badly, reading slowly, and 
eating rapidly are habits. Instincts may become habits if 
they are specialized in some way. Sleeping and eating are 
instincts, but sleeping at certain times and eating three meals 
a day are habits. 

There are three kinds of habits, — physical, mental and 
moral. Walking rapidly is a physical habit; concentration 
of the mind is a mental habit ; and truthfulness is a moral 
habit. 

When a man is asked to mention some particular habit he 
will usually answer, smoking, or wearing a coat when it is 
cold, or wearing his hat in the office; in other words, some 
physical habit. This leads to a natural conclusion that 
more is known about physical habits and consequently the 
most interest centers there. Although the attention of peo- 
ple in general is called to physical habits only, nevertheless 
mental and moral habits are quite as important. 

Under the subject of mental habits the following are good 
examples: One student reports that when adding mentally 
she sees the figures as on the face of a clock having ten 
figures. Another states that when counting mentally she 
sees the numbers as words, one, two, three, etc. The method 
[reported by the majority of people is that of speaking the 
numbers mentally in rapid succession. 

I Illustrations of moral habits are honesty, truthfulness 
land orderliness. 

j Learning and habit are very closely related and merge 
•into each other. Learning must precede and prepare the 
jway in the formation of complex habits. To learn to cro- 
jchet easily, the manner of holding the thread and every 



14 Studies in Psychology 

separate motion must first be repeated many times with full 
attention. This stage is purely that of learning. After 
practise the attention may be withdrawn from the details and 
given to other things. Habit has then entered in and begun 
to make the process mechanical. In the growth of all hab- 
its, consciously formed, there are somewhat similar steps. 

Association is always the stimulus which starts the act 
or chain of acts involved in an habitual pei'formance. That 
is, the act is repeated because the associations at the time 
are like those which have formerly been present when the 
action was performed. For example, one girl has noticed 
that if her father mentions the name, " Littlefield," she 
thinks of one of his employees, but if her sister speaks the 
name she thinks of a minister whose surname is Littlefield. 
A young lady who is in the habit of going to school at 
twenty minutes of nine, when she sees the hands of the clock 
in that position, immediately thinks of starting to school, 

FORMATION OF HABIT 

When one thoroughly observes the many habits that are 
a part of himself and of others, the question very naturally 
arises, — By what means did these acts become habit.'' 
Physiologists tell us that every time an act is performed it 
is registered in the brain by a little pathway through the 
gray matter. At every repetition the same pathway is used 
and thus made deeper. When the situation that called for 
the first act recurs, the act which has now become easy, by 
continued repetitions, will very likely be perfoi*med again. 
After many repetitions the pathway in the brain may become 
so fixed that it is doubtful if it can ever be effaced. Finally, 
when the situation calling for the act recurs the impulse will 
travel this pathway without affecting consciousness. Such 
observations can be made only by experts, and this paper 



A Study of Habit 15 

will be confined to facts that may be discovered by the ordi- 
nary observer. 

Habits may he formed unconsciously, and they are often 
of value as they relieve us of deciding each time what method 
shall be used in a simple act. They are often started at first 
by chance circumstances which happen to be repeated, and 
finally, become established. All the little nervous habits, 
such as swinging the feet and playing with a pencil, are 
formed in this way. One student reports, " I have a differ- 
ent position in each recitation room, which I unconsciously 
assume every time I recite. In the History room I sit facing 
the left, with my left arm thrown over the back of the chair. 
In the Psychology room I face toward the right, with my 
left knee over my right. In the English room I sit squarely 
facing the front, with my arms crossed. I have formed these 
habits because I must face the teacher. I did not notice 
that I assumed these positions until my attention was called 
to them by this study of habit." 

Regular repetition is an important factor in the formation 
of a habit. If an inters'al is left between each two repeti- 
tions, the next time the act can be done much more easily and 
with better results. This is explained by the fact that when- 
ever the muscles are used there is a tearing down process 
whereby the organic waste is given off^, and afterward there 
is a building up process by which the muscle is put into a 
better condition than when previously used. By leaving an 
interval between the processes of tearing down, the muscles 
have a chance to be rebuilt properly, and a greater amount 
of work may be done the next time. This is shown by the 
athlete who, when he first begins practising, can lift only a 
small weight, but after continual practice, with a rest be- 
tween times, he so develops his muscles that he can lift a 
much heavier object. 



16 Studies in Psychology 

The best arrangement of repetitions depends wholly upon 
what one is attempting. One member of the class reported 
that in studying history she spent the three hours allotted 
to that subject, at one time, because she could obtain a more 
connected idea of the whole. On the other hand, in the case 
of writing in a copy book, she divided her time into thirty- 
minute periods. In the first instance, the longer the time, 
the better the work, while in the second instance the reverse 
was true ; the shorter the period, the better the result. 

There are four important changes which take place during 
the formation of a habit, that is, in mode of doing, in speed, 
in accuracy, and in degree of consciousness. 

With each repetition of an act we change our method of 
procedure until we find the easiest way. In regard to the 
a = X test the following was reported : — " The first test, I 
was obliged to look on the key for each combination ; by the 
time I had finished the second test I had associated many of 
the combinations with initials of people whom I knew. This 
shows that not only may habits be developed from instincts 
as a basis but also that previous memories or habits may 
help (or perhaps hinder) the formation of a new habit. 
During the first three trials I had a mental image of the key, 
that is, I could see in my mind the first row of letters and 
those opposite that I knew, but the rest were invisible. 
After the fourth test I had learned all the combinations and 
thought no more about the initials but sing-songed the let- 
ters as I wrote, and was able to tell M^hen I wrote a wrong 
letter by the break in the rhythm." 

It took fifty-six seconds to do the first trial of the first 
test, while the first trial of the tenth test took twenty-two. 
There was a difference of thirty-four seconds between the 
average trials of the first and fifth tests, while there was a 
difference of two between the average trials of the fifth and 



A Study of Habit 17 

tenth tests. This shows a much greater gain during the 
first half than during the last half of the tests, and if we 
had continued the tests longer we would soon have reached 
our speed limit. Progress is greater at first. 

Ease and accuracy/ are also results of repetition. One 
member reported the following: " In arithmetic I practiced 
quick addition. At first I found it difficult to add quickly 
and correctly, but after much practice I found I could add 
more quickly and with less effort and obtain equally good 
results," Another example is that of knitting. The habit 
of making the necessary movements of the hands becomes so 
fixed that many people knit without thinking about it and 
can converse or read at the same time. 

After several repetitions an act becomes less conscious 
and the more times it is repeated the surer it is to be per- 
formed at the right time; for example: A young lady who 
was living away from home had no napkin ring, but after 
each meal for the first week she folded and rolled her napkin 
to place it in a ring. One student reports that after form- 
ing the habit of winding her watch while undressing before 
going to bed, she unconsciously does it if she undresses in 
the day time. One girl who had formed the habit of rapping 
at the door before entering another suite, unconsciously 
rapped at the door of her own suite before opening it to go in. 

In consciously forming a habit, external conditions may 
either greatly help, or hinder. A certain young lady, who 
was endeavoring to form the habit of using more correct 
English than that to which she had previously been accus- 
tomed, said, " When I am at home with my own people or in 
company with those whom I know to be educated and who 
speak correctly, I haVe no trouble in doing the same; but 
when I am with certain girls or people who speak incorrectly 
and use * slang,* it is almost impossible for me to avoid speak- 



18 Studies m Psychology 

ing in the same way." When one is trying to refrain from 
eating between meals he finds it very difficult if others are 
constantly eating in his presence, while on the other hand, if 
he lives with people who are accustomed to eating only at 
meal time it is very easy for him. One instance is noted of a 
cliild who had been accustomed to using his spoon for every- 
thing. One day after having been taught how to use the 
knife, he was found vainly endeavoring to cut his meat with 
his spoon and fork. The habit of using his spoon was so 
strong that it was almost impossible for him to learn how 
to use the knife. Experience has taught that if we wish to 
study and accomplish good results we must be alone or where 
our thoughts can be concentrated. When this is realized 
it does not take long to form the habit of careful study. 
One student reports that when a child, during one vacation 
at home, she was broken of the habit of biting her finger nails, 
but upon returning to school the habit immediately took its 
hold upon her again. 

The condition of the mind affects habit formation to a very 
great degree. One person tried to form the habit of going 
to sleep as soon as she got into bed, but she found that this 
was impossible when she was excited or when she had done 
very much studying during the evening. Another reported 
that while studying she tried to form the habit of keeping 
her feet squarely on the floor. She succeeded in doing this 
the first part of her study, but when she became tired and 
nervous it was impossible to keep her feet still. One student 
told of a member of her family, who, when excited, had the 
habit of talking and at the same time walking the floor as 
fast as she could. All attempts to sit still were unsuccess- 
ful. Thus it can readily be seen that when the normal con- 
dition of the mind is disturbed by excitement, fatigue or 
nervousness the regular formation of a habit is hindered. 



A Study of Habit 19 

// the immediate results of an act are unpleasant the act 
is not likdy to be repeated and so has not much change of 
becoming habitual; if, on the other hand, the results are 
pleasant we are likely to do the same thing again, and thus 
form a habit. If one wishes to teach a pet kitten to roll 
over and cuffs his ears after the first performance, he will 
not roll over again; but if, instead of the cuff, the kitten 
receives a piece of meat he will be more anxious to repeat the 
act. One instance is given of a little child who had the habit 
of crawling up on the table and picking up sugar by wet- 
ting the tip end of his index finger. The child was punished 
again and again, but it was not until one day when he acci- 
dentally picked up some salt that the habit was broken. 

Some habits help to form others, thus fulfilling the old 

saying, " learning to do one thing well aids in doing all the 

rest." One habit helps to form another just in so far as 

[the general method is the same. The following is an illus- 

Jtration: A young lady who had been in the habit of taking 

pictures with a No. 1 Brownie learned very readily to use 

a plate camera, because she was able to judge distance, time, 

.position, and light from her use of the Brownie, as the gen- 

'eral method was the same. But with the small camera she 

had to press a lever to obtain the picture, while in the larger 

one a bulb was used. This she found to be a hindrance, since 

she had to break the former habit in order to form the latter. 

i Previous experience may hasten or retard the formation 

of a new habit. Some time after the experiment with the 

j a = a: text, the students were required to perform some ex- 

iperiments with another key. The tendency to use the old 

key was so strong that it hindered the progress with the new 

j key. A representative case illustrating this is here given. 

I 43 sec. — 1st trial of a = s test. 



£0 Studies m Psychology 

83 sec. — 1st trial of a = o test. 
23 sec. — 10th trial of a =: o test. 
21 sec. — IQth trial of a = x test. 

This person was able to do the first trial of the a = o test in 
quicker time than the first trial of the a = s test, owing to the 
similarity in general procedure. The progress between the 
first and tenth trials of the a = o test was not as great as 
that between the same trials of the a = x test, because the 
old key hindered, as was remarked before. The knowledge 
of general procedure helped at first, but the change of letter 
prevented rapid progress. 

HABIT BREAKING 

Habits formed in youth are generally the most difficult to 
break. The physiological explanation of this is that in 
youth the tissue of the brain is softer than in old age, and 
therefore the impressions are much more easily and deeply 
made. The nervous system is similar to the moiilder's clay. 
At first the clay can be pressed and rounded into any shape 
with very little difficulty. As the work progresses the clay 
becomes harder and finally so hard that it is almost impos- 
sible to mould it further. However, the first form has re- 
mained. Each line is firmly fixed and can scarcely be obliter- 
ated. 

The difficulty with which the first lines in the clay are re- 
moved corresponds to the task which attends habit breaking 
in old age. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the 
importance of the formation of good and wholesome habits 
in youth. 

Habits which are broken unconsciously are generally of 
as little use as are the habits wliich are formed unconsciously. 
The written reports from a class of sixty young ladies con- 



A Study of Habit 21 

tained only two observations pertaining to habits broken in 
this manner, and they are habits of minor importance, such 
as refraining from tipping their chairs back while at the 
table and biting the finger nails. 

The mil power is usually the chief agent in breaking a 
habit. It is generally necessary to constantly keep the at- 
tention upon the habit that is being broken, if success is to be 
the reward. The amount of will power required varies with 
individuals, as is shown by the following illustrations. Two 
girls had the habit of making unkind remarks about their 
acquaintances. Both young ladies decided to try to break 
themselves of this habit by the exercise of will power. The 
resolution of one girl was so strong that she would check 
herself in the middle of an expression. The other would 
think, " I've gone so far, I might as well finish." The young 
lady who had the ability to check herself at any time broke 
the habit more quickly and permanently. 

Another girl broke herself of the habit of playing with a 
pencil, simply by forcing herself to put it down whenever 
she caught herself in the act. 

Every time the desire to repeat a certain act conquers the 
better judgment of the individual, that individual's power is 
weakened so that it is more difficult to check tJie imptdse next 
time. Many people allow their minds to wander when at- 
tending a lecture, especially if it is rather uninteresting. 
This habit of inattentiveness grows very rapidly so that it 
becomes practically impossible to concentrate the mind when 
necessary. 

Changing the conditions is often very effective in breaking 
a habit. 

One girl says she had the habit of asking people to do 
things for her which she could do for herself just as well. 
The person whom she called upon was taken sick and she 



22i Studies in Psychology 

had to do things herself. Now she does them without think- 
ing of asking any one to help her. 

Another reports that while wearing a locket and chain 
she had the habit of twisting the chain about her chin. Re- 
solved to break this habit, she removed the temptation by 
not wearing the chain and now the habit is completely broken. 
Sometimes, however, the habit in such cases is only suspended 
and appears again when conditions favoring it are restored. 

One girl said that in one of the grammar grades a school- 
mate used to suck his right thumb and take hold of his right 
ear with his left hand. The teacher broke him of this habit 
by tying a large red bow on his thumb. 

A student had been accustomed to say " chapel exercises " 
at a former school, but when she came to her present school, 
she substituted " morning exercises." Change of conditions 
caused the old habit to be broken and a new one substituted. 

Friends often assist in the hreahing of annoying habits 
and sometimes mimicry is the most useful weapon. It is re- 
ported by one member of the class that she broke her father 
of the habit of stirring his coffee vigorously when it was un- 
necessary, by mimicking him. One girl had the habit of 
making a peculiar motion with her hands when talking, which 
was broken by her friends, who imitated her every time she 
did it. 

Two examples of latent habit may be cited. One member 
reports : " When a little child, I acquired the habit of pass- 
ing tedious hours in church in trying to find out how many 
words I could get out of ' Congregational.' Now whenever 
the sermon is uninteresting I find m^^self picking up the 
church calendar and going through the same performance." 
Another : " One of my friends and I always went arm in 
arm to and from school. We do not see each other very 
often now, as we are at different schools, but when we do 



A Stud?/ of Habit 23 

go anj'where together we always go arm in arm." 

It is very difficult, and some would say utterly impossible, 
to tell when a habit is really broken. One girl relates : 
" More than a year ago, an addition was built upon my 
home, causing a door to be put where a window had been. 
Even now when I go home I find myself attempting to look 
out of an imaginary window." The illustration gives us 
some idea of how difficult it is to really break a habit. For 
this very reason should we not strive to so direct and aid 
the children in our schools, that good habits may be formed 
and strengthened, and bad ones broken.'' 

SUMMARY 

Through our study we have learned that: 

1. Habit is the acquired tendency of mind or body to do 
the same or similar things under the same or similar condi- 
tions, when the result produces satisfaction. 

2. Habits may be formed by concentration, by repetition, 
by imitation and by association. During habit formation 
many changes take place, namely: in rapidity, ease, ac- 
curacy, method of procedure. 

3. General methods aid in the formation of habit, spe- 
cial acts hinder. 

4. Habits formed in youth are the most difficult to break. 

5. Habits may be broken by means of will power, by co- 
operation of friends, and by forming one habit in place of 
another. 

6. The impossibility of knowing when a habit is entirely 
broken has been brought out by examples of latent habit. 



II 

A STUDY OF MEMORY j 

THE NATURE AND USE OF MEMORY ; 

MEMORY is the knowledge of a past event or fact with . 
the additional consciousness that it has previously been 
a part of one's experience or thoughts. 

Remembering can be broadly defined as retaining, but tliis 
does not distinguish it from habit, knowledge or imagination. 
It is necessary to add reproduction, the proof or manifesta- 
tion of the retention. 

An act or impression however might be reproduced with- 
out being remembered, as in a habit, so for a more complete 
act of memory, one must be conscious that the experience 
is the reproduction of a past event and it must also be lo- 
cated. One must know when the event happened, where it 
took place or under what circumstances. Therefore, a com- 
plete act of memory consists of acquiring, retaining, re- 
producing, recognizing, and localizing. For example, the 
scent of wistaria may bring back to one a remembrance of 
some place with which it was connected, the time, and the 
circumstances. 

Memory Versus Imagination 

Memory is sometimes confused with imagination, because 
they both involve mental pictures. Memory puts images to- 
gether in a certain defined way which is unchangeable, but 
imagination combines free images in various ways according 
to mood, and bound by no facts. To illustrate, a person 

24 



A Study of Memory 26 

sees a friend riding alone on horseback; later if he recalls 
where he saw him and how he and his horse looked he has an 
act of memory. But if he thinks of his friend dressed in 
khaki, carrying a flag, and leading a band of soldiers, he 
is using his imagination. He has a mental picture which 
is quite different from that memory gives. 

Sometimes we may imagine things which really never hap- 
pened. We may have laid so much stress upon the thought 
at the time, that it became real to our minds. For instance, 
one person says that she often has to put papers away in 
order, and if she is in a hurry, she forgets to do so, but 
afterwards is absolutely sure that she has done it. Then 
she has to look to convince herself of the truth. 

Memory Versus Knowledge 

Unless the mind can store up and recall past experiences, 
i no knowledge can be acquired. Since memory is so essen- 
I tial to knowledge, it is important to know how far we should 
use our memories in connection with knowledge. In geom- 
etry it is useless to try to remember any but the most com- 
( mon and necessary theorems. When a problem is to be 
solved that involves truths not commonly used, it is better 
I to know where they may be found, rather than to depend 
upon memory for them. In subjects like geography and 
\ history, it is well to memorize as much as possible, for gen- 
: erally, if one wishes to know anything about these subjects, 
he wishes to know it immediately. In learning a foreign 
language, a person should become so familiar with it by 
I means of memory that it becomes a matter of knowledge. 
j When one person hears the word " mountain," he thinks 
( at once of what a mountain is, not an exact definition, but 
a general idea, while the word " parallelogram " calls up a 
particular definition which he localizes. Another may think 



26 Studies m Psychology/ 

of an exact definition of mountain and a general idea of 
" parallelogram." In one instance the mind's process in- 
volves knowledge, in the other, memory. In the case of gen- 
eral ideas, the subject is known at once, in the other case the j 
associations are recalled. In knowledge, the facts are used 
without thought of their origin. In memory, the facts are 
recalled, and the means by which the knowledge was obtained 
is brought to mind. 

Memory Versus Habit 

Memory differs from habit in that memory always de- 
mands consciousness, while after a habit is formed, the act 
is performed reflexively and without involving conscious 
memory. However, in the first stages of habit, memory is 
useful. When one is forming a habit, he generally needs to 
think about the act at first. After that he depends upon 
memory until the act is performed without the intervention 
of consciousness, the condition which determines the estab- 
lishment of a habit. For example, when a child first learns 
to write he has to memorize the symbols Avhich he uses to 
express his thoughts. After he has written words many 
times, hfc depends upon habit for his symbols, and centers 
his mind upon the idea he is to express. 

Good and Bad Memory 

Good memory is shown by the distinctness and readiness 
with which an impression is recalled. He who can recall 
accurately whatever and whenever he wishes has a good 
memory. This power depends upon two things : the quality 
of the individual's mind, and his use of the three laws gov- 
erning memory, namely, repetition, intensity, and recency. 
A large majority of people use repetition and therefore spend 
much time in relearning old things, while those who depend 



A Study of Memory 2T 

upon intensity remember facts from once learning, and there- 
fore have much time to advance. Recency always helps, for 
it is a well-known fact that the mind may recall even the 
trivial happenings of yesterday, while those of a month ago 
may be completely obliterated. 

To test the ability of the class along the lines of incidental 
memory the following experiment was used. A week after 
the box test was given, our teacher asked us to write what 
the weather of that day was. Thirty-four of the class wrote 
pleasant, five, cloudy, five, stormy, three, windy, one, cold, 
and one didn't know. 

Oftentimes one is greatly inconvenienced because he has 
forgotten something very important, and then he is apt to 
say that he has a bad memory, which is not always the case 
if he did not at the time realize its importance. It is plain 
that we forget as much, if not more than, we remember, be- 
cause if this were not true, it would take us as long to men- 
tally review the happenings of yesterday as it did to per- 
form them. The mind chooses the most important affairs 
and stores them away while many trivial events are lost. 
Forgetting is as helpful to the healthy mind as remembering. 

A well trained memor}^ differs from a poorly trained one 
chiefly in that the former is reliable and under control, while 
the latter is vague, fickle, and involuntary. Ability to re- 
ceive impressions and retain them is largely a matter of na- 
tive endowment. But what one remembers and how accu- 
rately, depends largely upon training. 

Use of Memory 

Memory is of the greatest importance to mankind, because 
we are constantly referring to incidents of the past. Bar- 
barous tribes depend directly upon memory for their history, 
which is handed down orally from father to son, but with the 



28 Studies m Psychology 

progress of civilization, man has come to substitute devices 
for memory. He depends upon written histories for the rec- 
ords of the deeds and exploits of his forefathers. In a busi- 
ness which involves many details, systems by which time and 
energy can be saved are in common use. The government 
issues periodical reports, librarians use card catalogues, 
teachers keep records of attendance and scholarship instead 
of depending on memory. Therefore it is evident that every 
advance in civilization has been made directly or indirectly 
through memory or its substitutes because the successes and 
failures of one generation have enabled the next to do better. 
Many individuals use effective substitutes for memory. A 
housekeeper who has everything in place and a regular order 
of procedure may be much more efficient than one who has a 
good memory and tries to recall where she left a desired 
article, the last time she used it, or who must go over in 
mind what she has already done before deciding what to do 
next. 

This means that system and habit are good substitutes 
for memory. They are always better than memory when 
many things are to be done, while memory is most conven- 
ient when the occasions for its use are few. If you have only 
half a dozen books, it matters little how they are placed, 
but if you have a library of ten thousand volumes, system 
is necessary. If you receive only one letter a week, you can 
easily remember whether you have answered it or not, but 
if you are getting fifty, system and a habit of placing them 
in accordance with it, are much better. 

Memory is especially valuable in enabling us to do things 
that need to be done only once or occasionally and which 
there is little permanent value in remembering. You need to 
remember the lesson assignment for to-morrow and the er- 
rand to be done to-day, but it would be a waste of energy and 



A Study of Memory 29 

time to remember every assignment and errand of last month. 
Knowledge of permanent value is not so much a matter of 
memory proper as it is a habit of acting and thinking. 
Memory is of value in learning about verbs, factors, parallel- 
ograms, etc., but if one has to remember the definition and 
when and where it was learned, before he can identify a verb, 
a factor, etc., his knowledge is not as well developed and 
usable as it is in the case of one who does not need to re- 
member those details. The cliief use of memory therefore 
is to enable us to attend to temporary affairs and to help us 
to acquire habits and well-developed ideas of meanings. 

AIDS IN LEARNING AND METHODS IN ACQUIRING 

There are three fundamental laws that aid in learning: 
repetition, recency, and intensity. 

Repetition 

Repetition is a prominent factor in learning. Either the 
words are written, recited or read over and over again or 
else the thoughts or main facts are reviewed in the mind. 
Twenty-eight of the girls in class reporting their method of 
study, said that they used repetition more than anything 
else in learning their lessons, whereas two reported that 
they could learn better by concentrating their minds upon 
the lesson and going over it only once. It is through repe- 
tition that a number of facts are taught in the lower grades. 
They may be presented in different ways but still they are 
the same facts repeated. If we are to learn anything by 
heart, either poetry or prose, we use the method of repeti- 
tion, and if we are teaching it, we use the same method. 

Recency 
The second fundamental law is that of recency. One can 



30 Studies m Psychology 

remember what happened yesterday much better than a week 
or a month ago. The following is a good illustration of this 
fact. About a year ago, one of the girls watched a friend 
who was doing an embroidery stitch that she had never seen 
before. She observed very closely to see how it was done 
and a few days afterward did some of the same kind of work 
herself with very little difficulty. About a week ago she 
again tried the same stitch, but all efforts to bring it back 
to memory failed. From this illustration we conclude that 
recency plays a great part in our ability to remember, so 
if we wish to retain facts we need to review them occa- 
sionally. 

Intensity 

The third fundamental law is that of intensity. All can 
readily remember a runaway or some other very unusual oc- 
currence which may have happened some time ago, while 
comparatively recent happenings are completely obliterated. 
A student says, " I can remember perfectly the night of a 
fire, when the building where I was staying was destroyed. 
Every incident connected with it comes back to me now, 
while other events of the same period are completely for- 
gotten." 

If one is really interested in any subject, the impressions 
made upon his mind while studying it are more intense than 
if he is not interested. A great many pupils tell of how 
hard it is to learn history, but those who like history never 
seem to have much trouble in remembering it. 

Environment and Physiological Conditions 

Conditions of environment may be such that they will help 
or hinder a person in learning. In the first place, there 
should be plenty of fresh air in the room. Impure air will 
make a person feel dull and stupid and unable to do his best 



A Study of Memory 31 

work. The room should be neither too hot nor too cold, 
for either extreme will hinder good thinking. There should 
be light enough so that one need not strain his eyes to see, 
but not so much that it is glaring to the eyes. 

Very few people can study well where there is much noise. 
Only one girl out of fifteen said that noise made no differ- 
ence with her. A school room should be kept quiet but not 
too quiet. An atmosphere of industry makes one feel that 
others are busy and inspires ambition. If it is perfectly 
quiet there is something in the stillness that draws the mind 
away from work. The time of day should be considered, 
especially in school. It is easier to learn hard things in the 
morning when the mind is fresh and the school program 
should be planned with that in view. Furthermore, the 
learner must be comfortable. He must have a seat that fits 
him, and must be in a position where his mind will not be 
distracted from his work. One girl says that she cannot 
study in an easy chair and explains it by the theory that 
relaxation of body induces relaxation of mind. 

A person must also be in good physical condition and not 
tired, in order to learn well. In the schools of to-day the 
physical exercises wliich are a change from mental work help 
greatly in keeping the child from getting too tired. Some 
children have been considered dull because of defective eye- 
sight and hearing, but medical inspection can remedy that to 
a great extent. 

Use of Sensations and Images in Acquiring 

There are three methods of acquiring knowledge : through 
the senses, by the use of images, and by association. Repe- 
tition which is often classed as one method is simply a means 
of deepening impressions. 

Certain things may be committed to memory chiefly by 



32 Studies m Psychology 

means of the senses ; for example, in the experiment with 
visual forms, memorizing by means of the motor sense was 
illustrated. The children were given figures to learn by 
tracing the shape on their desks. This proved to be very 
helpful to them as they remembered each figure by thinking 
of the movement. No mental image can be formed except by 
the previous use of one or more of the senses. We could not 
imagine how a horse looked if we had never seen one, or how 
music sounded if we had never heard any. 

Mental imagery must precede association because associa- 
tion is the connection of one mental image with another. 

Let us consider first which method proves most effectual in 
memorizing visual forms or isolated units such as faces, forms 
of letters and the like. Of the various methods employed in 
memorizing, some are adapted to one case while others work 
better in other instances. 

In the thesis experiment with visual forms, we found that 
the use of the motor sense produced the best results with the 
children. The imaginative method, that is the closing of 
the eyes and trying to think how the image looked, proved 
successful neither in respect to details nor to general pro- 
portions. The method of association of the whole with a 
similar form was tried but this was not as successful as the 
method of imagination. However, association by analysis 
was very successful, especially with the Normal students. 
The figure was such that each part could be associated in 
their minds with some former image and then reproduced by 
means of tliis association. 

These tests would seem to prove that in learning isolated 
units, the use of the motor sense is the best method with 
children, while with the older students, association by analy- 
sis is most successful. 

In learning lists of isolated facts, such as dates, errands, 



A Study of Memory 33 

words, letters, dimensions, etc., previous knowledge is of 
great value. For example, the dimensions of a number of 
things, such as the width of a desk, the size of a room, the 
height of a door, were given to the class, first, in terms of 
the metric system, and second, in terms of our common table 
of long measure. Out of thirtj-five reproduced statements 
only 9.9 per cent, were correct in the first case, and in the 
second case, 30.5 per cent, were correct. This shows what 
a large part familiar terms play in memorizing. 

Use of Grouping 

An effect of rhythm may be produced in a material with- 
out rhythm by arranging it in groups, as was done with a 
list of numbers read in the class. The numbers were first 
given to us without any kind of arrangement or grouping. 
The second time they were given in groups of three at a 
time, and we were all able to remember them much better by 
the last method. Therefore it is evident, that with certain 
kinds of material, grouping or rhythm is a very important 
aid in learning. 

If the material is not such that it can be grouped, some 
people can remember the facts better by seeing them written 
on paper, that is, by the use of the visual sense. An experi- 
ment made by Supt. S. H. Pratt would seem to prove that in 
spelling, a combination of two or more senses brings the best 
results. In addition to a daily test, a weekly review was 
given. The tabulations are as follows: 



Written. 


Studied. 


Di 


%ily Test. 


Review. 


5 times 







91.1 


88.8 


10 times 







92.5 


85.2 


15 times 







91.8 


89.0 





10 minutes 




92.5 


86.3 


3 times 


6 minutes 






90.9 



34 Studies m Psychology/ 

It will be seen from this, that the combination produces as 
good results as any in the daily test, and better results in 
the review. 

There are many cases where auditory or visual images aid 
in learning isolated material. For instance, a key sheet with 
rows of corresponding letters was used in a class room ex- 
periment. Many pupils said that the sound or sight of one 
letter called up the sound or sight of the other. Some people 
say, " I never learn to spell a word, I just think how it 
looked when I read it." This method is applicable only by a 
small number of people. 

AIDS IN RECALLING, UECOGNIZING AND VERIFYING 

The need of aids in recalling, recognizing and verifying is 
shown by the following example: " Several times lately I 
have seen a little girl whom I was sure I had seen before, but 
where, I did not know. I kept thinking about it and finally 
I tried to picture her as I had seen her previously. The pic- 
ture that presented itself was one of a little girl sitting lower 
than I and looking into my face. Then it flashed across my 
mind that it was at one of the recent revival meetings, when 
she had sat in the next seat to the front and I had been on 
the platform with the chorus. All was plain now. I had 
located her as to place and then as to time for it was at one 
of the meetings when the children had sung and I had seen 
her take her seat. There were only two children's meetings 
and I know that some other people sat there the first night, 
so it must have been on the last night, which was Thursday." 

There are many ways in which the mind works in remem- 
bering, and as a means of investigating these thirty-seven 
papers on aids in recalling, recognizing and verifying were 
written by the class. In thirty-one of the papers, association 



A Study of Memory 35 

was mentioned as a powerful aid. Repetition was mentioned 
teighteen times, distinctness of original impression, eleven, 
and mental pictures and outside conditions, each seven. 

Aids m Recalling 

Association is considered the greatest aid in memory. In 
the term association, we include connection of different im- 
pressions of sound, time, sight, position, etc. 

Association by sound is exemplified by the following in- 
stance : " A little girl wished to tell me about someone 
named Pearce and she could not remember the name at first. 
At last she gave it and she said the only way she could re- 
member it was by thinking of pocket-book, another name for 
which is purse." 

Repetition was mentioned in many of the papers as being 
of great value. One girl wrote, " The first part of the year, 
I always had to stop and locate the different recitation rooms 
in the Normal School. But soon the daily practice of re- 
calling them made their location an unconscious process." 

But on the other hand, repetition is of very little use in 
most cases without concentration of the mind. The follow- 
ing is a good illustration of this fact. The Normal School 
students have seen the pictures in the buildings almost 
every day since September and yet when they were obliged 
to mention a certain number of pictures, very few could re- 
call them. One student writes that she has been but once to 
the Agassiz Museum and yet can recall certain things much 
better than the pictures which she sees every day but sees 
almost unconsciously. 

A very good example of the aid given by mental pictures 
is shown in the following illustration: A student having 
read one of Shakespeare's plays some time before, wished one 



36 Studies in Psychology 

day to look up a certain quotation which she had memorized. 
Remembering that it was near the beginning of the play she 
confined herself to the first part of the book and uncon- 
sciously looked on every right-hand page. When asked why 
she paid no attention to the left-hand pages she answered 
that she remembered distinctly how it looked when she learned 
it and that it had been on the right-hand page. The picture 
she had formed proved correct, for this was the location of 
the passage. 

Each sense is a powerful factor in fixing impressions in 
the mind. Appeal to more than one sense at a time has been 
found to be very valuable. One of the strongest arguments 
in favor of illustrated lectures is that by the stimulation of 
both the ear and the eye we receive more impressions than 
by use of the ear alone. By recalling one of these im- 
pressions — either visual or auditory ■ — the other usually 
follows and we have a clear recollection. 

An example is given showing how fear of punishment may 
affect the memory. A child is told to go to a certain place 
after school and forgets. A second time she is told, with 
the same result. The third time she is told that she will be 
punished if she forgets the errand again and she is very sure 
to remember. 

Pain will impress certain things to be remembered upon 
even the very young child. He sees the shining nickel of the 
stove and longs to run his finger along the surface because 
it is so smooth ; but he discovers upon experimenting that it * 
is also very hot. A second time he has the same longing to 
feel of the nickel, but experience helps him to remember what 
any number of warnings would not. 

Among other sense-aids pleasure holds a prominent place. 
One of the Normal students made an experiment on another 
girl who memorized piano selections a great deal. She asked 



A Study of Memory 37 

the girl what pieces she remembered best. The reply was 
that those which gave her pleasure were best remembered. A 
very sad piece in a minor key is very often remembered much 
longer than some bright, cheerful melody. In the Chopin 
music, which we have been studying this year, it is very 
noticeable that a great many of the girls always recall some 
of the sadder passages. Their sadness has beauty and 
beauty is always pleasing. 

Novelty often serves as a spur to memory. A member of 
one division made an experiment regarding a process of 
memory of which she had read. The article maintained that 
if just before going to bed, one looked at a clock set at the 
time he wished to awake, he would awake at that time. She 
followed the directions very carefully and the first time she 
set the watch an hour earlier than her usual hour of waking. 
The result was remarkably accurate, for her first impression 
the next morning was the sound of a clock striking the right 
time. The next night she changed the time again and the 
results were not so accurate. The third night they were 
still worse. Since the attendant circumstances were the same 
; each time this student came to the conclusion that her suc- 
cess the first night was due almost wholly to the novelty of 
the experiment. As the novelty wore off* the experiment be- 
came less and less successful. 

In the same way that recency of experience aids in learn- 
ing, so it is an important factor in the recall of details. 

Memory is controlled to some extent by knowledge. No 
one would say that he had seen a man twenty feet tall, for his 
common sense would tell him that no such thing would be 
possible. 

That the memory may be trained by use and the habit of 
observing is shown by the following example of a person who 
trained his memory so perfectly that he is able, after passing 



38 Stvdies in Psychology 

a store window and glancing at the articles displayed, to 
describe everything in the window. But the same writer 
knows a girl who walks along the street and has no impres- 
sion of people who pass by, nor does she remember the per- 
sons when remarks are made about them. 

Many people depend upon a simple nonsense rhyme as an 
aid to recall, rather than upon learning a thing outright, 
as is shown by the following results. Out of a class of 
sixty-nine it was found that sixty-one use the rhyme " Tliirty 
days hath September " in remembering the number of days 
in the months, forty-seven making use of it always, and 
twenty-two occasionally. One was found to have a device 
of counting on the knuckles to find the number of days. 
Only seven were found who really learned the number of days 
so that a rhyme or device of some sort did not need to be 
brought into use. Under the same heading would come the 
rather old-fashioned method given to the children for re- 
membering the sharp and flat scales, namely, " Good deeds 
are ever bearing fruits " and " Farmer Brown eats apple 
dumplings greedily." This method may in some cases be 
advisable, but it seems rather trivial when men and women 
are obliged to depend constantly upon nursery rhymes. 

Aids in Verifying 

Just as we recall b}'^ association, we verify by association. 
The following account shows how an impression may be veri- 
fied from known facts. A girl knew that she had gone down 
town on a certain day, at a certain time, for she remem-- 
bered saying that she didn't care if she couldn't get the hat 
she ordered that day, for Easter. She knew it must have 
been on Friday, for she remembered hearing her companioi^ 
say that she had an appointment at four, which she always 
had on Friday, and it was remarked that it was very near 



A Study of Memory 39 

that time. 

Some people verify by the help of others, and some by 
authoritative means. This is illustrated by the following 
instance from the paper of one student. " Many times 
questions come up at home concerning the location of some 
toAvn or city, or the distance from one place to another. My 
parents generally ask me, instead of relying on their memo- 
ries, because they think I have studied the subject since 
they have. If the answer given satisfies them I come to the 
conclusion that I have remembered correctly, but if not, I 
usually go at once to some reference book in order that I 
may discover whether I am right or wrong." 

Results of Experiments 

During our study of memory, several experiments have 
been made to illustrate and prove different points. The first 
was the box test, explained in the appendix and in the tabu- 
lations on the following pages. 

The records for the three divisions of the Junior Class of 
the Normal School supply valuable material for comparison. 
Allowing for the difference in the age of the children, the 
records for the grades in the Edgerly School also furnish 
good material. 

The tabulation shows that immediate reproduction after 
the reception of sensation is more exact than recall after 
an interval. There are only two out of the eight cases cited 
that might contradict this statement : Grade VII, Percep- 
tion, where correct reproduction is only one-tenth of a word 
more than correct recall ; and Junior II, where correct re- 
production is only five-tenths of a word more than correct 
recall. These results would seem to furnish proof that re- 
cency of impression is a very powerful aid to memory. 

Making allowance for difference in age in the eight cases 



40 



Studies in Psychology 



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42 Studies in Psychology 

under the Box Test, we are still able to form a comparatively 
true idea of the relative force of the auditory and visual 
senses. Compare Grade VI with Junior I, II, and III, Grade 
VII, Perception, and Grade V. It will be seen in the col- 
umns " reproduction " and " recall," that where the ear only 
was appealed to (Grade VI), the results were very much 
poorer than where the eye alone was appealed to. 

Forming mental pictures has seemed to produce very good 
results. Grade VII, Image, and Grade VII, Perception, fur- 
nish the best field for observations along this line. Grade 
VII, Image, stands above Grade VII, Perception, in both re- 
production and recognition, but falls below in recall. This 
points quite clearly to the conclusion that imagery is a pow- 
erful factor in immediate reproduction, and is also easily in- 
fluenced by suggestion, so that it facilitates recognition, but 
it also shows that the memory of things imagined is not so 
fully under the control of the will, as of things perceived. 

Another experiment (II), by the three divisions of the 
Junior Class aimed to test the power of familiarity as an aid 
to memory. A short paragraph containing many measure- 
ments in the common units, foot, yard, etc., was read to the 
class. It was reproduced immediately, and recalled about a 
week later. The same paragraph with the measurements 
changed to the metric system (a system known to the classes, 
but used by them very seldom) was read and reproduced, and 
later recalled. From the averages tabulated under Experi- 
ment II, it will be seen that the familiar terms are much bet- 
ter reproduced and recalled than the unfamiliar terms. In 
the case of Junior II, both paragraphs were read at the same 
time, and not reproduced at all. About a week later they 
were recalled, but with very poor success as to the latter* 
Immediate reproduction of unfamiliar terms is comparatively 
successful, but recall after an interval gives very poor re- 



A Study of Memory 43 

suits ; whereas, recall of familiar terms after an interval 
produces almost as good results as immediate reproduction. 

Experiment III was the " Rousseau Test " referred to in 
the introduction. This experiment should be compared with 
the two following ones, as it was made to illustrate the ef- 
fect of the amount to be retained upon memory. 

The next two experiments, IV and V, were very similar. 
Two lists of objects were read. The classes reproduced im- 
mediately, then recalled some time later. In spite of the 
fact that experiment III dealt with connected ideas, experi- 
ments IV and V were more clearly remembered. This is due 
to the fact that increase in amount received produces in- 
creased difficulty in remembering. 

In experiment VI, cards in groups of ten with letters 
printed on them were shown to the class for a few seconds 
and reproduced immediately after. In the first case, the 
letters formed words, in the second, nonsense syllables ; in 
the third, they were wholly unrelated and could not possibly 
be pronounced as words ; in the last case they were written 
in Greek characters which were familiar to part of the class. 
The letters grouped to form words were by far the best re- 
membered. An explanation of this fact may be found in 
association. The thoughts produced by the meaning of the 
words aided the visual sensation in stamping the letters upon 
the memory. In the second case, the imagined sound of the 
groups of letters aided the visual sensation, but in the third 
case the eye alone was used. The last case was also almost 
wholly a visual sensation, as the characters were unfamiliar 
to a great many. It therefore seems that appeal to more 
than one sense at the time of impression is of great value in 
getting correct results in memory. 

From experiments I and IV we find that memory images 
are recognized with a much greater degree of accuracy than 



4j4j Studies m Psychology 

they are reproduced either immediately, or recalled after 
an interval. This seems due in both cases to the fact that 
some impressions are more vivid than others, and so are more 
capable of voluntary recall. Therefore the weaker impres- 
sions are overlooked unless some outside conditions bring 
them to mind. In the recognition tests in experiments I 
and IV, the reading of the two lists acted as a stimulant 
to the memory so that even the weaker impressions were 
recognized as having been received before. 

Doing for oneself fixes ideas more firmly in the mind than 
any amount of observation. That is one reason why the 
experiments made individually by members of science classes 
are so much better remembered than those which are simply 
demonstrated by the teacher. The student who investigated 
the matter of memorizing music, found that her subject re- 
membered much better a piece she had played through once 
herself than one that she had heard many times. Allowing 
for the difference of impression made by the different pieces, 
she still considered it a proof of the statement that those 
things which we do for ourselves, whether mental or physical, 
remain in memory much longer than those which we see 
others do. 

AGE, SEX AND INDIVIDUAIi DIFFERENCES 

In making a study of this phase of memory, it is found 
that there are many marked differences owing to age, sex 
and individuality. 

Differences in Age 

There is one most striking difference in the power of 
memory of a child and of an aged person. 

Recency is a most important factor in the child's memory, 
while it does not have so much influence over the older 
person. 



A Study of Memory 45 

If an elderly person is asked to relate incidents of his 
youth, to describe his early home and friends, it will almost 
invariably be found that he can do so immediately, and that 
the mental images will be very distinct. If, instead, one 
should ask this same person to recall some of the happenings 
of a few years past, it will be found that he can not do this' 
as readily. 

Differences in Sex 

From experimental tests it has been found that boys have 
not as good memories as girls. This is due, perhaps, to the 
different centers of interest in the boy and girl. 

An illustration of this is seen in the following incident. 
A young lady and her brother attended a ball game. It 
was remembered for some time by the boy but was soon for- 
gotten by the girl whose interest in the game was not as 
great as that of her brother. Thus it is a universal fact 
that memory depends greatly upon interest. 

The box test given in the sixth grade will show differences 
between sexes. 

Sixth Grade 

Girls Boys 

Av. No. Per cent. Av. No. Per Cent. 
Remembering .... 4% 43 

Recalling SYs 23 

Recognizing 7 63 

Although the girl's memory is discovered to be, for the 
most part, better than the boy's, it has been found through 
experiments, that once an idea is firmly fixed in the mind 
of the boy, it is there to stay. 

Individual Differences 
Besides the differences of age and sex, there is also an 
important difference dependent on the special individuality 



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46 Studies in Psychology 

of persons. Some have special native endowment. It is 
very seldom that a person is able to remember all things 
equally well, although this is not an entire impossibility. 
Most people are gifted in one particular phase of memory. 
Some common instances of special native power are shown 
in regard to historical dates and facts, mathematics and 
literature. The following illustrations taken from re- 
ports show tliis. A young lady who is not able to remem- 
ber the simplest process in arithmetic is always able to men- 
tion a historical date or fact in connection with any subject. 

A young student is extremely quick and accurate in mathe- 
matics but cannot recognize any allusions in English litera- 
ture or remember any of the foreign languages. 

A certain girl after glancing over her reading lesson two 
or three times is able to repeat it in almost the exact words 
of the writer. Another child in the same room who seems 
of average brightness in other studies, is unable to recall 
any of the reading lesson, even after a longer period of 
study. 

Besides these innate differences there is a difference de-: 
pendent upon the sense appealed to. One person memorizes 
a verse when read to her, while it is entirely necessary that 
another person see the verse in order to remember it. Here 
a different sense is appealed to. This difference is also 
seen in the playing of a piano or other instrument, by note 
and by ear. 

SUMMARY 

(1) Memory is that function of the brain which gives man 
the power to look into his past. Memory differs from 
imagination in that memory always makes use of definite 
images, while imagination makes use of free images ; from 
knowledge in that recollection always requires an effort, while 
the facts in knowledge are reproduced without effort; and 



A Study of Memory 4tl 

from habit, in that habitual acts are accomplished without 
the intervention of consciousness, while memory depends di- 
rectly upon consciousness. 

(2) The prominent laws of memory are the same as those 
in learning, namely, repetition, recency and intensity. 

(3) Isolated units and facts, and related ideas are re- 
membered through the aid of the senses, mental imagery and 
association. 

(4') Associated knowledge is a most powerful aid to re- 
calling, recognizing, and verifying. The greater the number 
of associations, the greater the likelihood of correct results. 

(5) Repetition is useful in fixing ideas. Repetition with 
concentration assures retention. 

(6) Appeal to the visual sense gives better results than 
appeal to any other one sense. Appeal to more than one 
sense at a time produces vivid impressions for future 
memories. 

(7) Nonsense rhymes are of some value in a few cases. 
Familiarity with a subject makes recall more certain. 

(8) Increase in amount of memory material given at one 
time increases the difficulty of retention. 

(9) As man ages he loses the power to retain new things, 
but can readily recall the incidents of his youth. 

(10) Memories of boys and girls differ according to their 
centers of interest. 

(11) Special memories are due greatly to the native pow- 
ers or the special training of certain individuals. 



Ill 

IMAGINATION 

NATURE AND USE 

AMONG the faculties of the mind we find that imagina- 
tion plays a very important part in the development of 
the human race. It is a source of pleasure and profit. 
Without it our knowledge would be limited to those things 
which we have actually experienced, and our lives would be 
narrow and uninteresting. 

A common conception of imagination is that it deals 
merely with the fanciful, impossible, and poetical. In re- 
ality, imagination is that power of the mind which creates 
images without the immediate aid of the senses. It also 
brings forth former images under the same or different con- 
ditions. 

Contrasted with Memory, Reason and Perception 

Memory and imagination interlace in various ways, yet 
each has its distinguishing characteristics. Imagery is com- 
mon to both, but they differ somewhat, in that memory uses 
the images of the past, recognizing them as such, wliile imag- 
ination may reproduce, construct or create according to de- 
sire or fancy. 

To illustrate the connection between reasoning and imag- 
ination, the following question was asked : " How many 
inch cubes can be placed around a surface four inches long 
by four inches wide? " From the results we found that some 

48 



Imagination 49 

students reasoned by means of symbols entirely, while others 
depended on pictures constructed by the imagination, and 
still others, on both these agencies. The results of the latter 
proved most successful. 

Again, we find a relationship existing between perception 
and imagination. The former is the result of actual stimu- 
lation of the sense organs, while imagination may give us 
mental experiences only a little less vivid, when the senses are 
not being stimulated. It may also aid perception by pictur- 
ing former sensations like those being experienced at the 
time. 

Use and Value 

In discussing this subject some thought must be given to 
the practical side. A wide field of knowledge is open to 
those who are able to use their imaginations freely. Were 
it not for this medium books and periodicals would be mean- 
ingless to many people. How much could any of us get 
from Carpenter's Geographical Readers without the aid of 
our imagination? 

When a child is able to form clear images of different con- 
ditions, to such a degree that he seems to live right in the 
midst of them, history becomes a living subject. His imag- 
ination may complete and perfect the descriptions of great 
men and women until he feels as though he were actually 
acquainted with them. He is thus enabled to mentally see 
events in other ages as well as other places. 

One of the Normal School girls who had studied descrip- 
tions of the school and its surroundings depended cliiefly 
upon her images thus formed to guide her about the build- 
ings and the adjoining neighborhood until she became thor- 
oughly familiar with them. A successful teacher finds it 
most profitable to appeal to the imagination of her pupils. 
By this means she may arouse their interest and lead them 



50 Studies in Psychology^ 

to gain knowledge more readily. An illustration of this was 
seen in the training school, when the teacher had the children 
take an imaginary trip to an extensive wheat field in the 
West. The result was that the children were able to reason 
out the answers to her questions more quickly and accurately. 

Misuse 

As many other faculties of the mind are often misused, so 
is imagination. In children this misuse often takes the form 
of falsehood. They have such vivid imaginations that un- 
realities often seem real and frequently lead them into telling 
untruths. 

An overwrought imagination sometimes brings disastrous 
results. The following true story is an example of this. 
*' A boy who was eating dinner suddenly began to choke. 
His parents became alarmed and called a doctor, who ex- 
amined the child but could find nothing wrong. Neverthe- 
less, the boy continued to grow worse and finally was sent to 
the hospital, where an operation was performed. Still the 
cause of the choking could not be found. As a last resort 
the doctor told the boy that the object had been removed. 
Immediately he began to improve, and soon had entirely 
recovered." 

Ghost stories and goblin tales often have a very bad effect 
upon cliildren. They cause a fear of being alone and in 
the dark, which often remains when the children have become 
men and women. 

MENTAL IMAGES 

Mental images are what might be termed pictured sensa- 
tions. The word " pictured " is used in the broadest sense, 
meaning that we may form images, not only of things seen, 
but also of things perceived through the other senses. 



I magi/nation 51 

Memory and Free Images 

There are two classes of mental Images, memory and free. 
Suppose the word " house " is mentioned to two different 
persons ; one recalls the image of a particular house, while 
the other forms a general idea and thinks of no individual 
house, although he too has formed an image. 

The former has a memory image, the latter a free image. 
Memory images are the more common. In a class of twenty- 
six pupils the following experiment was made which tends 
to prove this statement. The word " book " was given and 
the class was asked to write down the different kinds of 
images called forth ; likewise with the words " house " and 
" apple." Of the twenty-six, 77 per cent, had memory 
images only ; 15 per cent, had free images, and 8 per cent, 
had both. Experiments with other classes had like results. 

Kinds of Images 

All images belong to one of the following classes : Vis- 
ual, auditory, motor, olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste), 
or tactile (touch). Of these the visual are by far the most 
vivid and most common. In a class experiment almost every 
member had visual images. One had a verbal image of the 
words "book," "horse," and "apple"; about 12 per cent 
had gustatory images in the case of the latter. When the 
word " rose " was mentioned 4 per cent had olfactory im- 
ages, 4 per cent motor and 4 per cent tactile. There was 
of course no chance for auditory images in this experiment. 
Other experiments have showni, however, that these are next 
to the visual in prominence. 

Many people have very vivid motor images, as in the case 
following. Dr. Strieker says, " If I try to call up in my 
memory the walking movement of another person, such as a 
soldier marching, so as to imagine him first in one position, 



5S Studies m Psychology 

as standing firmly on the ground, and then as lifting his leg 
to take a step at the command ' March,' I notice that I am 
thinking of the movement of the upper part of my own 
thigh." 

Olfactory, gustatory, and tactile images are rare, al- 
though sometimes quite vivid. The reason that visual and 
auditory images are so common is probably because the eye 
and ear are used so much more than the other senses. 

After Images 
Often when a person has looked at an object for a time 
and then closes his eyes, he finds that an image appears, 
the colors of which are complementary to those of the real 
object. If the color is red, the after image is green, and if 
it is blue, the after image is yellow. This is especially apt 
to occur when the eye is tired. Such images are called nega- 
tive after images. When the exact images appear in the 
correct color they are called positive after images. 

Images and Concepts 

An image differs from a concept and must possess the 
qualities and peculiarities of an individual object. It is 
impossible to image anything without giving that image in- 
dividual characteristics ; for instance, in picturing a person 
we always remember the most prominent features. 

A concept must embody only those qualities which are 
common to the entire class. A partially generalized image, 
such as that of a tree with trunk and branches but of no 
specific kind, is somewhat like a concept, but the latter in- 
cludes a knowledge of the nature and use of trees as well 
as of their form. 

Hallucmations 

Hallucination is the name given to an image of such ab- 



Imagination 53 

normal vividness as to be mistaken for a percept. It has 
no sense stimulus, but appears with all the other character- 
istics of the percept and sometimes it is even more vivid. 
While grieving for a dead relative or friend, one sometimes 
sees the image of that person, perhaps sitting in a chair as 
though alive. A percept is usually under voluntary con- 
trol, Avhile a hallucination is not. 

An illusion differs from a hallucination in that it is a false 
perception with a sense stimulus. For instance, clothing 
over the back of a chair may cause one to start, thinking 
he has seen a person. 

Delusion is continued illusion or hallucination accepted as 
true or real. 

KINDS OF IMAGINATION 

Imagination may be divided into three classes : reproduc- 
tive, constructive and creative, according to the amount of 
mental rearrangement of images involved. 

Reproductive Imagination 

Reproductive imagination is the process of reviewing per- 
cepts arranged according to the time, place and order of 
their occurrence. Such imagination bears such a close rela- 
tion to memory that it Is very difficult to distinguish one 
from the other. 

A box containing many different objects was shown to a 
class of pupils. Mental Images of what was In the box 
helped In recalling the contents at another time, but images 
of things not In the box were also reproduced, and thus imag- 
ination both helped and hindered memory. 

The following Instances Illustrate the practical use of this 
kind of imagination. Certain members of a class who mem- 
orized a selection were able to picture mentally the exact 



54 Studies in Psychology 

place where the selection was found in the book. 

A man who needed a letter for reference closed his ej^es and 
saw the written words before him. By this mental picture he 
was saved the trouble of going to his desk and re-reading the 
letter. 

Reproductive imagination may be of great value to a 
teacher in telling children of things which she has seen in 
places unfamiliar to them. Instances of this were shown 
in the talks given to the Normal students by members of the 
faculty who used their reproductive imagination to bring 
into play the constructive imagination of the pupils. 

Constructive Imagination 

Constructive imagination is the placing of images in a cer- 
tain form according to given directions. This kind of imag- 
ination was used to a great extent when the class was asked 
to compare the height of Mount Wachusett with that of the 
Normal School building; also when asked to compare the 
relative size of gill and quart measures. 

Again it is found of great importance in school work, 
especially in the teaching of history and geography. For 
example, if the children are studying about a moitntain and 
have never seen one, they must first think of a hill. With 
this as a basis they must construct mentally a larger ele- 
vation as directed, until they can form an image of a moun- 
tain or of a range of mountains. It is by proper use of this 
kind of imagination that we get correct ideas of all sorts 
of things we have never seen. 

Creative Imagination 

Besides reproductive and constructive imagination, we 
have a third form which is called creative imagination. In 
this variety the activities of the two previous kinds are com- 



Imagination 55 

bined and used, not according to direction, but according to 
individual taste. 

In planning a house or arranging its contents we image 
things we have seen, change and combine them, then arrange 
them in such a way as to give a result pleasing to ourselves 
but different from any seen or heard of. Creative imagina- 
tion is prominent in children as well as in designers, inven- 
tors, artists and poets. 

Development of Imagination 

It is obvious that from the very beginning of a child's life 
simple images play an important part in his mental growth. 
At no very late stage of his development he begins to combine 
freely his simple images into higher forms and commences 
to build a world according to his own imaginings. 

In play the child unconsciously uses imitation to a great 
extent, which aids his imagination. A little girl delights in 
playing with her doll, which is to her a real person. When 
pretending the doll is ill, she cares for it, just as she herself 
has been cared for by her mother. A child who has seen a 
parade or a very large building often constructs a miniature 
one with his own blocks. 

Mother Goose Rhymes are the first stories to interest chil- 
dren. These seem real and the children often act them out, 
according to their own ideas of what is pictured. Fairy 
tales and myths interest them soon after the Mother Goose 
age. How fascinating are the fairies and brownies to the 
child with a vivid imagination! He forms vivid images of 
these stories, as is shown by his insisting on the same words 
and facts every time the stories are told. 

The forming of new combinations by the child is more 
noticeable when he begins to tell stories himself. 

Little control over the imagination is evident during child- 



56 Studies m Psychology 

hood. Mental pictures seem to build themselves and the 
child is often unable to prevent it or to change them into 
a form more pleasing to himself. For example, a certain 
little boy imagined that when he went to sleep he was going 
to die, and he therefore had a great fear of sleep. If a child 
hears beautiful fairy stories rather than horrible ghost sto- 
ries he is nmch more likely to have lovely fancies instead of 
fearful pictures. 

The child's studies in the early grades act as stimuli to his 
imagination. Geography and history are important factors 
in this line. When he reads or hears about unfamiliar peo- 
ple and places he sees them mentally and this exercise 
strengthens his power to image. Imagination plays an im- 
portant part in drawing. To draw a cube from memory 
correctly, the child must first have a mental picture. 

The first great change in the development of the child's 
imagination comes after he has passed through the primary 
grades. Henceforth he forms his images with a purpose 
and compares and modifies them. For instance, he can form 
an image of a house in China by comparing it with a house 
familiar to him. Now the child questions his images and 
becomes more curious as to the truth of them. He begins 
to wonder if the fairy tales are time, and if fairies and 
brownies really do exist. His images now take a more defi- 
nite form and arrangement. 

In school, the teacher of geography and other subjects 
should question the children about their images to be sure 
that they are accurate because ideas gained through images 
are not easily corrected. The powers of imagination should 
not be abused by too much day dreaming. The more the 
mind is allowed to hold fanciful ideas without doing anything 
to realize them, the more difficult it is to settle down to 
earnest work. 



, Imagmation 67 

ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS 

The association of ideas is the true life of the mind, just 
as protoplasm is the true life material in nature. It is the 
connection of ideas, thoughts and mental pictures. 

It is well known that association is an aid to memory. 
The following taken from the Youth's Companion illustrates 
this: "A Boston family had just moved and one of them 
remarked to the succeeding tenant, * We did hate to leave 
such a good telephone number; it was so easy to remember.' 
' Do you think so.'' ' returned the other. ' We haven't found 
it so.' ' Why,' said the former occupant, ' it was 1066, the 
date of the Norman Conquest.' " 

Association in connection with imagination forms an im- 
portant topic. Our ideas can not be isolated since one de- 
pends upon another. Each idea, as it comes before us, 
reaches, on the one hand, back into the past and, on the 
other, forward into the future. Unless we possess this power 
of association our knowledge of the world will be limited. 
The repetition of the association causes the thought to be- 
come more firmly fixed. An example of this is shown in the 
learning of the multiplication table. We repeat it over and 
over, " 9 X 14? = 126," until at last the number " 126 " is 
so firmly associated with 9' X 14 that we cannot possibly 
forget it. 

Intense and recent associations have the same results. 
One Saturday afternoon just before Thanksgiving, two stu- 
dents amused themselves by following out a number of trains 
of thought. No matter how they started they always ar- 
rived sooner or later at the subject. Thanksgiving, because 
that thought was uppermost in their minds at the time. In 
former times children were taught their lessons by means of 
repetition. In modern times an attempt is being made to 
substitute interest for repetition, as far as possible, because 



68 Studies in Psychology 

it is so much more effective. Ideas which have been associ- 
ated frequently, intensely or recently Avill surely recall one 
another. 

In actual experience associated ideas are affected by other 
related ideas and the entire order of thought helps to deter- 
mine which idea shall appear at a given time. If the idea of 
multiplication has just been in mind the numbers six and 
eight will suggest forty-eight. If addition, those numbers 
will suggest fourteen. In both instances the ideas six and 
eight are present but the following idea depends upon the 
general thought preceding. In a similar way our memory 
of particular words in poetry or prose depends upon the 
entire set of verbal associations with which they are sur- 
rounded. 

Ideas do not stand alone in the mind but are connected 
with many other ideas ; for instance, if Fitchburg is sug- 
gested to a certain student the following train of thought is 
produced : the printed word " Fitchburg," generally in a 
newspaper, suggests a view of Fitchburg from a distance; 
the main street of the city, the map that was drawn in 
geography class, the location of Fitchburg on a map of 
Massachusetts. 

When our minds are engaged upon a definite line of 
thought, such as the solution of a difficult problem in mathe- 
matics, each idea which presents itself to the mind bears a 
close relationship to the matter in hand. When we are over- 
come by sorrow all ideas center about our grief. Thus in 
addition to the simple laws of association our purposes and 
our interests are important factors in association. The 
foolish fancies of dreams illustrate what may occur when all 
the purposes which dominate association have been removed 
and the associative machinery is allowed to run wild. 

There are various types of association determining our 



Imagination 59 

mental pictures, such as association by contiguity, similar- 
ity, contrast, etc. 

The primary law of association is known as the law of 
association by contiguity. Under this form of association 
images follow each other and arrange themselves in ways 
most common in previous experiences. 

This is not true when similarity associations prevail. If 
we see a person who has features or other characteristics re- 
sembling those of an acquaintance, we immediately form a 
visual image of that acquaintance. Now this image comes 
not because the two persons have ever been seen together 
but because some feature, tone of voice, or gesture is like that 
of the familiar acquaintance. 

As to the value of association by contiguity as compared 
with that of similarity, the latter is considered the more valu- 
able, because, as one writer says, " association by contiguity 
is merely arbitrary, while that of similarity is arrived at only 
by exercising the powers of the mind in reflection and inves- 
tigation." 

The use of language illustrates both these kinds of associa- 
tion. If a person wishes to teach a foreign child the word 
" red," he says " red " and then points to something of that 
color until the two are associated by contiguity. On the 
other hand, in learning a foreign language such as Latin, one 
is apt to reason somewhat like this : " Imperator," that is 
like our English words " imperial " and " imperious " ; it 
must mean " to command," or something like that. 

In teaching children whose reasoning powers are not de- 
veloped, association by contiguity should be used, but the 
teacher should help develop associations of similarity by lead- 
ing children to notice and recall similarities. 

Association by contrast is really a modification of contigu- 
ity and similarity. Things are not felt as contrasting un- 



60 Studies m Psychology > 

less they have some element of likeness ; thus sweet suggests, 
not red but sour, and black, not heavy, but white. 

Children's ideas are often confused; in geography they 
may think that rivers flowing north are running up hill 
because North is up on the map. Ease and accuracy in the 
use of the imagination depend very much upon the asso- 
ciation of ideas that children form in school. Consequently 
it is important that their minds should be richly stored. 
We get the material for forming our associations from read- 
ing, travel, and intercourse with other people, especially the 
last. So if we always mingle with one " set " or " class," 
and always read one kind of book or magazine, it follows that 
there will not be a great variety in our associations. 



IV 
ATTENTION 

NATURE OF ATTENTION 

ATTENTION is the focusing of the mind. Good at- 
tention may not be successfully given to more than one 
thing at a time, unless it be to things which tend to the 
same end, like singing a song while playing the accompani- 
ment, because that is in itself a unifying process. An ex- 
periment was given in which the pupils were told to write 
one poem and recite another at the same time. Those who 
succeeded gave their attention first to one thing and then to 
the other, or else they did one mechanically and gave their 
attention to the other. In either case it required more time 
than when the different acts were done separately. * 

If a person attends to one thing exclusively, a more con- 
centrated attention results. For example, in listening to a 
song on the victrola the students were asked to center their 
thoughts entirely upon the voice. In doing that, the 
accompaniment and all else faded from their thought and 
attention and they heard only the voice of the singer. 

One great characteristic of attention is its grouping 
tendency. If things are grouped many more can be at- 
tended to than if they are not. For example, long rows of 
figures were shown for a second or two to the class. When 
the figures were grouped, very long rows were remembered, 
and when they were not, each member of the class instinctively 

tried to group them. Five or seven marks on the board 

61 



62 Studies m Psychology 

could be seen without grouping, while twenty-seven or more 
could be seen only by grouping. 

Another phase of the nature of attention is shown when 
a person adjusts or directs his attention. For example, 
when a person wishes to get up early in the morning, usu- 
ally, when retiring the night before, he thinks and ponders 
over it and adjusts his attention to that one fact, often 
really awaking at that particular time the next morning. 

An example was given in class illustrating this point. 
" There was a person sick in the house and another person 
had it on his mind to awake when he heard the voice either 
of one of the children or the sick person. He fell asleep 
and no other sound could wake him, but when he heard one 
of these voices he immediately awoke." 

We do not notice the ticking of a clock, the noise of the 
city streets, or the roaring of the brook near the house, 
and even the din of a factory will not disturb the thoughts 
of its workers if they have been there long enough and so 
have become accustomed to it. The reason for our uncon- 
sciousness of these things is certainly not the mere blunting 
of the sense organs. Were the sensations important 
enough, we would adjust our attention for them, and notice 
them. 

Moving objects and sounds, especially the human voice, 
usually attract one's attention. We find also that such 
things as give us pleasure or lead us to anticipated pleasure 
readily receive our attention, while we usually turn away 
from the disagreeable unless it forces itself upon us. 

Another peculiarity of attention is that of analysis. The 
following illustrates this. " First we looked at the famous 
picture of ' The Last Supper.' We saw the picture as a 
whole, then our attention was directed to the disciples, ar- 
ranged in groups of three, and all else became dim. Sud- 



A ttention 63 

denly our eyes caught sight of the Christ, the disciples all 
seeming to be centered on Him, and we saw only ' Christ 
sitting in the midst of them.' " 

Attention may save us from mistakes even when we are 
quite sure of what we wish to do. One student spoke of 
going to a dentist. His office was on the third floor in a 
block. She knew perfectly well which floor the office was 
on and that it was necessary to turn to the right at the 
head of the stairway. While ascending the stairs her 
thoughts were on the errands which had to be done. There 
were six, though only five could be recalled. When the top 
of the stairs was reached the turn to the right was made. 
She entered the room and sat down still pondering over the 
sixth errand. After sitting there a few minutes, she won- 
dered why the dentist did not come into the room. Glancing 
about she was startled to see that the room did not look 
familiar, and still more startled upon glancing at the ground- 
glass door, to read , Attorney-at-Law. She left the 

room quickly and upon reaching the corridor and looking 
about, saw that she was on the second floor instead of the 
third. 

From the above treatment of the subject and the examples 
given, we conclude that attention is the concentration of the 
mind, consciously or unconsciously, upon certain objects, 
thoughts, and acts. This involves activities of adjusting, 
selecting and analyzing or grouping. Attention selects what 
we shall know, clarifies our thinking, arouses one emotion or 
another and directs all our doing. 

IMPORTANCE OF ATTENTION 

Attention forms character. By paying attention to tliat 
which others do, and imitating or avoiding it, we are influ- 
enced either for good or evil. The girl whose attention is 



64) Studies m Psychology 

given chiefly to dress develops a weak, silly character. The 
boy whose attention is directed to finding all methods by 
which he can shirk his work becomes worthless and unreliable. 

If for no other reason than that it saves time, we should 
learn to concentrate. For example, by reading a problem 
in arithmetic through once and paying close attention to it, 
ability to solve it is much greater than if it were read many 
times without concentrating the mind upon it. 

Through attention we increase our pleasure. If we are to 
enjoy music we must listen carefully in order to appreciate 
the intertwining melodies and contrasting chords. Or again, 
if we stroll through the woods without noticing our sur- 
roundings, we do not enjoy ourselves as we would by observ- 
ing the birds and flowers about us. All persons attend more 
or less closely to something and they become diff'erent chiefly 
because of what they attend to. 

KINDS OF ATTENTION 

There are two kinds of attention, namely, voluntary and 
involimtary. Voluntary attention is the conscious concen- 
tration of the mind under the impulse of desire; as, for 
example, when a boy becomes interested in water wheels, he 
studies an encyclopedia to find out how they are made. In 
voluntary attention one attends not merely because his atten- 
tion is attracted but to accomplish a purpose. Such atten- 
tion is easy when the thing attended to is agreeable but may 
require a good deal of effort if it is uninteresting. Learning 
a poem or musical selection may be very easy for one and 
hard for another. 

Involuntary attention does not involve purpose but the 
mind is acted upon by the force of the stimulus presented. 
Involuntary attention increases when fear, curiosity, or other 
strong emotion is excited. It is sometimes called reflex at-» 



Attention 65 

tention since the stimulus is from without and acts independ- 
ently of the will. Such attention sometimes results in unin- 
tentional learning, as related by one student. " Last Christ- 
mas a friend gave me a motto, which I hung on the wall near 
my dressing table. I had no idea of learning it, but in a 
few weeks I was able to repeat it word for word." 

Familiarity serves as a great stimulus to involuntary at- 
tention, as may be illustrated by the following example: 
" At the opening exercises one morning, I did not feel like 
singing, so I decided not to. It happened that Miss P. 
played a very familiar hymn, and without realizing it I was 
soon singing." 

Involuntary attention reveals a person's character, or at 
least his tendencies. It indicates whether a person is frivo- 
lous, vulgar, interested in science or alert to beauty. The 
painter gives his whole attention to a beautiful sunset, in 
which the peasant sees only the approach of night. The bot- 
anist finds interesting specimens where the farmer sees merely 
worthless weeds. Thus previous acts of voluntary or pur- 
posive attention greatly influence reflex attention in after life. 

TYPES OP ATTENTION 

Observations have shown us that there are different types 
of attention, varying greatly in different people, affected by 
their individuality and environment. There are four princi- 
pal types: prolonged, diffused, quickly shifting and com- 
pletely concentrated. 

In prolonged attention one applies himself to a certain 
task perhaps for hours and usually cannot shift his atten- 
tion readily. As we stand and watch the people who are 
counting the silver certificates in the vault of our govern- 
ment building, we at once say that here is an example of 
prolonged attention. Such attention was needed when a 



66 Studies in Psychology 

group of high school students were required to spend five 
consecutive hours in writing a composition on a given sub- 
ject. 

The second tj'pe of attention, namely, diffused, is shown 
in the following examples, where, through necessity, the 
person gives attention to more than one thing at a time or 
seems to do so. 

" In a country church service, after the sermon had be- 
gun, there appeared in the doorwa}^ two people who hesitated 
about entering. Without stopping his sermon the minister 
went down the aisle and ushered them to some seats, all the 
while continuing to speak and keeping the attention of the 
people on his sermon during the entire proceeding." An- 
other instance of this type was shown by the organist play- 
ing the recessional at church. His attention was appar- 
ently on his music but he was aware of the movements of 
the people and when to cease playing. 

The third type, shifting attention, is shown when the 
attention is transferred instantly from one task to another, 
then as quickly shifted back again. One student wrote: 
" Last summer while in the Grand Central station in New 
York City, I observed a railway official who possessed the 
ability to answer all kinds of questions pertaining to the 
movements and connections of a large number of trains. 
As he answered each inquirer satisfactorily he would turn to 
the next, sometimes even changing to the German, French, 
and Italian languages." Another student told of observing 
a telephone operator at work. The latter turned quickly 
from answering a call on one line to another line, then to a 
third, and so on. 

In the fourth type, complete concentration, the attention 
is centered so strongly that outside stimuli, unless extremely 
intense, have no effect. An amusing incident was told of a 



Attention 67 

man who became very much engrossed in an article in the 
newspaper. A friend cautiously set fire to the paper. It 
blazed up, but not until the heat of the fire reached the man's 
fingers did he realize the situation. One student told of 
the way in which she concentrated her attention so entirely 
upon her letters, after getting them at the hall and starting 
for the third floor of the dormitory, that often she found 
herself ascending the attic stairs. 

These different types of attention are all useful for vari- 
ous purposes. The type most prominent in us depends in 
part upon our natural tendencies and in part upon what 
we have been doing. A student of the concentrated type 
may at first fail in teaching because she can attend to only 
one thing at a time and cannot quickly shift to something 
else. 

ATTENTION AND THE MENTAL PROCESSES 

This subject is of especial interest to teachers because it 
is so closely related to the acquiring of knowledge. It is 
closeh^ correlated with memory, habit, imagination, interest, 
sensation, will power and movement. 

Attention and Memory 

Attention is the dominating factor in the development of 
one's mental powers, especially memory. Attention is one 
of memory's greatest aids. If we wish to remember any- 
thing we must attend to the stimulus in order that it may 
make an impression deep enough to remain, and the longer 
and more concentrated the attention to the original impres- 
sion the clearer will be the memory image. The following 
example is given by one student : " If I am introduced to a 
person I have never seen before, in order that I may know 
him when I meet him again, I must give my attention to 
his general appearance, features, and so on." 



68 Studies m Fsycliology 

Attention to the association of ideas helps in the future 
recall of those ideas. For example, suppose one desires to 
remember the definition for a decimal fraction. Full atten- 
tion must be given while learning it and the associated ideas 
noted. Then, when using the definition, if it is difficult to 
recall, attention should be given to the train of thought 
of which that definition is a part. 

Attention and Habit 

Almost all our habits develop because of attention being 
given to some particular action. After attention has been 
given to the action a sufficient number of times it becomes 
unnecessary and we perform the act mechanically. 

The forming of some habits requires a great deal of atten- 
tion as well as will power and the same is true in breaking a 
habit. However, in the latter case attention to a habit 
which is to replace the undesirable one is more effective. 

Attention and Imagination 

Imagination is also closely related to attention. It is 
usually impossible to imagine, or in other words to have a 
clear mental picture of, any scene if we have not at some time 
given attention to details similar to those which appear in 
the scene to be imaged. If we wish to picture the appear- 
ance of some chivalrous knight of the Middle Ages, we must 
make use of various facts concerning knights which we have 
learned in the past. 

This is, of course, similar to the use of attention in mem- 
ory, the difference lying in the fact that in imagination the 
images are not reproduced exactly as they were when we 
first gave them our attention, but are now arranged as our 
fancy chooses and as we are able to control and direct the 
attention. 



Attention 69 

Attention and Interest 

Interest is certainly closely related to attention and 
knowledge is the result. We are more apt to listen to a lec- 
ture which is interesting than one that is uninteresting. 
Often something a little odd or new Avill gain the attention. 
One student gives an incident which happened in her home 
town. " A whole store window was covered with advertise- 
ments except a small hole three inches in diameter, and on 
the curtain was written, ' Please do not look.' Every one 
who went by stopped to look through. The window con- 
tained a large card with a display of gentlemen's collars 
hung on a peg and above was written, ' Rubber! Collars.' " 

The lover of nature observes the habits of his bird friends 
and because of his attention he discovers the law of pro- 
tective coloration. The astronomer watches the heavens 
and is able to announce to the world the discovery of a new 
star. So it is throughout the whole list of these knowledge- 
seekers ; physicists, chemists, geologists, all owe their knowl- 
edge to the concentration of their attention on their chosen 
subject. It often seems as though their discoveries were 
made by chance, but brief consideration will show us that 
attention was the essential factor. 

It is a well-known fact that most people, especially chil- 
dren, attend to the things that are interesting. Therefore in 
school, lessons should be made as attractive as possible in 
order that useful things may be attended to and learned. 

Attention and Sensation 

Increased intensity of sensation draws the attention. On 
the other hand, attention directed to a sensation increases its 
intensity or at least its clearness in consciousness. Many 
sensations He in consciousness almost unfelt when the atten- 
tion is busy elsewhere ; as soon as thought is directed to them. 



70 Studies m Psychology 

they are given full force. By fixing the attention upon 
burns, bruises, etc., the pain is increased. That is why we 
try to divert the mind of a patient we are caring for from 
his particular trouble. 

Attention and Movement 

The relation of movement and attention is exceedingly 
close. We notice reflexly the person, bird or squirrel that 
moves anywhere within our range of vision. Lines being 
drawn in a picture attract more notice than those already 
drawn. If the movements are made by one's self attention 
is still more easily held. The movements of the eyes are 
very closely related to attention. It is hard to look at one 
object and attend to another. Our attitudes and expression 
of face produced by slight muscular movements show others 
whether we are attentive or not and also help in making the 
proper mental adjustment for attention. When one's 
thought wanders it can often be concentrated by straighten- 
ing up and making some muscles tense. 

Attention and WiU-pote'er 

Strong will-power is one of the essentials of good volun- 
tary attention. If one has strong will-power he can keep his 
mind upon the most uninteresting things. Weak will-power 
means poor attention except to things that force themselves 
upon the notice. On the other hand, what we do is the 
result of attending to certain ideas and purposes, hence onh^ 
he who can direct his attention can exercise will-power in 
carrying out what has been undertaken. To be successful 
in any profession one must not reflexly attend to whatever 
attracts or impresses him but must voluntarily keep his mind 
upon what helps in gaining his purposes. 



Attention 71 

LAWS OF ATTENTION 

Attention, like most things, is governed by laws. From 
observation and reading one may find a great number of 
laws of attention, but only the most important ones will be 
taken up in this topic. Other things being equal, the follow- 
ing laws hold true. 

(1) The strongest stimulus attracts the attention, or in 
other words the attention depends upon the intensity of the 
stimulus. This is true not only of hearing but also of sight, 
taste, and smell. Our attention is attracted by a loud sound, 
by bright colors, by bitter and sweet tastes, and by strong 
odors, all because of their intensity. 

(2) The more rapid the change in the stimulus the greater 
the degree of attention aroused. At a moving picture per- 
formance scarcely any one is seen turning around but every 
one's attention is held by the rapid transition from one pic- 
ture to another. If we are in a very warm atmosphere and 
it suddenly grows very cold, our notice is instantly at- 
tracted. If the change took place gradually it would not 
be noticed as readily. 

(3) Physiological laws govern attention as well as laws 
of external stimuli. A person who is tired or not physically 
strong cannot give as good attention as an unwearied or 
healthy person. The physical condition of a person also 
leads his attention along certain lines. For example, an 
invalid is attracted by advertisements relating to medicines, 
but a well person rarely notices them. 

(4) There are several mental laws influencing attention. 
One easily attends to things that have been attended to 
recently or frequently, and to whatever is related to some- 
thing that has been agreeable. The power of an object to 
attract one's attention is largely dependent upon one's in- 
terest. If we are not interested in a thing we find it very 



72 Studies m Psychology 

difficult to pay attention to it, and we must know something 
about a subject in order to be interested in it. If we go to 
a lecture on planets and are wholly ignorant of the subject 
of astronomy, we will find our mind on anything but what 
the lecturer is saying. On the other hand, if we have just 
been studying about the planets and are interested in them, 
the results of the lecture will be far different. Hence knowl- 
edge always helps in attending to any new thing that can be 
connected with it. 

A knowledge of all these laws is of great value to teachers 
and others who wish to find the best way of gaining and hold- 
ing attention. 

CONDITIONS AFFECTING ATTENTION 

The conditions affecting attention are: physiological, men- 
tal conditions and surroundings or environment. 

The state of the brain and nervous system, as well as the 
quantity and quality of stimulus received from an object, 
affects attention a great deal both in regard to the amount 
of effort required to give it and the length of time it can be 
sustained. 

Let us first consider how mental conditions affect atten- 
tion. A good lawyer is able to so concentrate his mind upon 
the testimonies of plaintiff, defendant and witnesses, that in 
the summing up he can use all the evidence with the great- 
est effect, perhaps moving his hearers to their profoundest 
depths and perhaps persuading the jurors to decide an im- 
portant case in his favor. Such a person is in full command 
of his mental powers. 

Let us see how physiological conditions affect attention. 
Children in the school-room become inattentive if they are 
not physically comfortable. School children should wear 
well-fitted clothing else they become restless and irritable. 



Attention 73 

If they are fatigued they cannot give good attention to 
study. 

The surroundings or environment are also important. 
Great care should be exercised in looking after the ventila- 
tion of a school-room. Impure air produces drowsiness by 
causing the brain to become stupefied. Improvement in 
scholarship will be seen if all such disturbing influences are 
removed or avoided. 

The temperature of the room has much to do with one's 
capacity to attend. The air of the room should be changed 
as man}^ times as possible during the day and it should be 
moist. The thermometer should never register above 67° 
or 68°, for it has been proved by many experiments that 
such a temperature is conducive to the best mental activity. 

The weather also has something to do with attention. On 
a stormy or even a cloudy day, when everything outside 
seems dull and unpleasant, children are apt to bring this 
feeling into the school-room. 

When a person is endeavoring to place his thoughts upon 
paper, they become in a measure dispelled if a conversation 
is begun in his hearing. The average person cannot help 
listening to what is said in his presence. He may continue 
his writing but it is impossible for him to do his best at such 
a time, especially if he is not thoroughly interested in his 
subject. 

Hounds on a fox hunt at night attract attention. A 
rooster, when he crows in the late evening, is apt to be heard, 
while if he crows in the early morning, such is not the case. 
All unusual sounds, sudden cessation of sound, unusual 
sights, odors, tastes and unfamiliar movements tend to at- 
tract the attention of any one who experiences them. 

Teachers should be familiar with all the conditions as far 
as possible, that they may be able to help their pupils to 



74j Studies m Psychology 

overcome the many hindrances wliich constantly appear, 
and to strive toward greater success. 

HOW TO SECURE AND HOLD THE ATTENTION 

Of the many places where attention is absolutely neces- 
sary, the school-room is one of the most important. Noth- 
ing can be taught unless the pupils are paying attention. 
Here lies the chance for the teacher to show her originality, 
and she should use it in making the lessons varied and in 
conducting them in different ways, thus keeping the chil- 
dren's interest alive and not letting the work become monoto- 
nous. 

Variety is the key-note in obtaining and holding the pu- 
pils' attention. If this fact were borne in mind, teachers 
would have few inattentive children. 

Connection should always be made, when possible, between 
the subject in hand and something in the children's lives, 
for this will arouse interest. It is similar to meeting new 
people and becoming suddenly interested in them if they 
mention some one we know. What a different feeling comes 
over us and how much deeper interest we feel in them. It 
is the same with stories either of history or fiction. When 
a story is told us in which a certain character or place 
which we have heard of before is mentioned, we connect the 
new with what we already know and find our interest in- 
creasing. 

In teaching about Japan, a comparison may be made be- 
tween the habits and customs of Japan and our own country. 
When taking up taxes with the children, have them find out 
all they can about the taxes their fathers have to pay. 
This Avill lead their interest to " those dry old examples in 
the book." 

Children are always interested in objects. Pictures also 



Attention 75 

help to correlate the new with the already familiar. For 
instance, if the lesson is on cotton, pictures of cotton and 
cotton fields may be shown, also pictures of Eli Whitney's 
cotton gin. These may be used together with the real cot- 
ton and cotton seed, or in place of them, when they cannot 
be had. 

In teaching arithmetic, bring in the names of animals 
which interest the boys, and flowers which interest the girls. 
When the weather is disagreeable it is well not to give the 
more difficult lessons but to keep them for a brighter and 
more cheerful day. 

The teacher should train herself to see that the tempera- 
ture and ventilation of the room are as they should be. 

Cliildren become tired if they are compelled to sit too 
long in the same position. A short gymnastic exercise will 
arouse their spirits and also their interest in their work. 
Pupils should not be allowed to lounge in their seats, for 
Avhen the muscles are relaxed, the child cannot work, any 
more than a horse, with his muscles relaxed, can draw a load 
uphill. 

Children soon become tired of looking at the same things 
for any length of time. The teacher should remember this 
when she places pictures or oraaments around the room and 
allows them to remain there for months at a time. There 
are some qualities in a teacher which assist in securing and 
holding attention, and there are others which hinder. A 
teacher's personal appearance should be as neat and at- 
tractive as possible, for the respect of the children is lessened 
if she dresses untidily. If she wears the same dress all the 
time, the children will soon become tired of looking 'at her. 
This is a serious matter, because the teacher must be before 
the eyes of the pupils for about five hours every day. One 
little boy said that he knew when the teacher received her 



76 Studies m Psychology 

pay because she always came to school the next week with 
a new tie or belt. The voice and manner help, too, in gain- 
ing attention. A teacher should not speak in a loud voice 
all the time, neither should her tone be dull or monotonous. 
No teacher can arouse interest in a subject in which she 
herself is not interested. It is hard to be enthusiastic over 
anything unless one is well. Therefore a teacher needs good 
health. 

Questions should always be asked before the pupil is called 
upon to recite. This requires attention from every one. 
A whole class will be kept alert if the questions are not asked 
of the pupils up and down the rows in order. This keeps 
every child in suspense until some name is called. 

When one has secured attention she should reward it by 
giving something worth while, else she will be like the boy 
who cried " wolf " in the fable. He secured attention at 
first, but there was nothing to his story. Soon he could 
not make any one listen to him, even when there really was 
a wolf destroying his flock. 

If the teacher correlates the new with the old, uses her 
originality and appeals to the curiosity of the pupils, she 
will arouse their interest. If she then keeps it from lagging 
by introducing variety, she will have solved the difficult prob- 
lem of securing and holding attention. 

DEVELOPMENT OF ATTENTION 

The development of attention is shown in the change from 
involuntary to voluntary attention, or will-power. Atten- 
tion in infancy is altogether involuntary. As the child be- 
comes older, we see the voluntary type developed. An infant 
is first attracted by powerful stimuli, such as a bright red 
tie or a rap on the door. As he grows older, less powerful 
stimuli attract his attention : — footsteps that fall softly, 



Attention 77 

or a color which is less bright. 

When a child begins to look a long time at a certain 
thing, he is doing what favors the development of voluntary 
attention. An example is given by a student as follows : 
" Not long ago I visited a friend who has a baby four months 
old. I wore a dark blue tie and a white shirt-waist with a 
dark skirt. The baby fastened its eyes on my tie and would 
not take them from it for a long time. We tried to attract 
its attention to other things but it took several minutes to 
do this." Such attention is made stronger and more volun- 
tary by using it. Soon the child is able to fix its attention 
on an object for a longer time and the stimuli Avill not have 
to be so powerful. A child whom one of the students had 
an opportunity to observe, wanted his mother to come and 
get him. He cried very loudly at first, then v/hined awhile, 
and finally stopped and listened to the loud ticking of a 
clock which was in the room, then started to cry again, but 
stopped to listen to the ticking of the clock and to see the 
pendulum move. 

The power of voluntary attention has not become very 
great when the child enters school. Nevertheless it may be 
applied for periods of ten minutes at a time and, with prac- 
tice, for longer periods and to less interesting things. 

In the development of attention the following are neces- 
sary : variety, interest and novelty. 

The child's mind tires in a short while and his attention 
becomes wavering. For this reason variety is an important 
factor in holding the attention of small children. For in- 
stance, if one sees that at the end of the arithmetic lesson the 
attention is poor, introduce a singing lesson and see how 
quickly interest is again aroused. When attention through 
the sense of hearing has become lax, appeal to the sense of 
sight. If the pupils' thoughts begin to wander from the 



78 Studies in Psychology 

lesson and they become restless, a little physical exercise 
helps. 

Much care must be taken to have a suitable environment 
in school. If a child becomes uneasy or nervous, the chances 
are that the class room is either too hot or is badly venti- 
lated. 

With small children the element of interest should be con- 
tinually kept in view in teaching a lesson. To gain attention 
is not to hold it, and the latter is more difficult. Attention 
is never secured by demanding it. Punishments compelling 
the outward semblance of attention are of little value because 
the child has not developed sufficient will-power to bring 
his mind to bear upon the subject and the point of contact 
must be found between the subject and the child's interest. 
Too often a child has the mere appearance of attention. 
The teacher must lead the child to voluntary attention by 
appealing to his involuntary attention. This shows why 
lessons for young children should be interesting. 

By the time the child is in the intermediate grades his at- 
tention is quite well developed and is largely voluntary. The 
pupil intentionally attends in order to accomplish some pur- 
pose. It is essential at this period that the pupils should 
recognize the value of voluntary attention and learn to 
study. 

When a student reaches the high school he should be able 
to give determined attention. Concentration upon one thing 
for several hours at a time should now be possible. If the 
attention is not well trained at this period, it never can be 
utilized to any great extent in after life. 

One may develop his own power of attention by spending 
a little longer time on some subject each day. It shows a 
weakness of will-power when one spends only an hour on a 
subject and then feels that he must change and do something 



Attention 79 

else. 

Power of attention should develop with age until maturity, 
and this development depends largely on the individual him- 
self. Attention should be developed along the right lines. 
Some one has said, " We do not pay attention to the things 
which do not interest us but we are interested in the things to 
which we give our attention." If this is so, we can choose 
for ourselves what we shall be interested in, and along what 
lines we shall develop our attention. 



V 

CONCEPTS 

NATURE OF CONCEPTS 

\ CCORDING to Sully, " A concept is a representation 
^ *■ in our minds answering to a general name." A con- 
cept may be defined as a general notion, a class notion, or a 
group notion. If some one should say " book " to you, 
you would probably not think of any particular book, but 
rather of the general meaning of the word, covers, leaves 
fastened together, and printed matter. In other words, you 
would have a concept of " book." The word " knife " gen- 
erally calls to mind a sharp instrument, consisting of a thin 
blade of steel fastened to a handle. 

The following illustration of a change in a concept was 
given by a member of our class : " In our back yard there 
was a plum tree which bore purple plums and I thought that 
all plums were of the same color. One day, a visitor brought 
me yellow plums, but I refused to eat them, declaring that 
they were lemons. At last I was persuaded to taste them, 
and by their flavor I knew them to be plums. Later I found 
that there were also red plums. Now upon hearing the word 
* plum,' I do not think of any particular variety, but of 
plums as a class, their size, shape, flavor, etc." 

In another instance a small boy first saAv a house elevator 
that was worked by hand. When he heard an elevator men- 
tioned, he immediately thought of that particular one. 
Afterwards, he went into a department store and saw an ele- 

80 



Concepts 81 

vator which was worked by a lever. At different times he 
saw other elevators, one for carrying freight, others for 
taking passengers to different floors in the store. Thus, his 
first narrow idea of an elevator became broader and more 
general. Now, when an elevator is mentioned, he thinks of 
it simply as a means of conveyance from one floor to an- 
other. 

A certain teacher gave the term " relief map " to a class. 
Upon questioning, she found that a part of the class glanced 
at the relief map in the room, others formed a mental pic- 
ture of the relief map of the continent they had been study- 
ing, while the remainder formulated a definition of the term. 

In analyzing this, we find that in the first case the think- 
ing was presentative and that the pupils had a percept of a 
particular map. In the second case, the thinking was rep- 
resentative, i. e., images of maps which they were studying 
were re-presented in their minds. In the third case, the 
pupils formulated a definition from their knowledge of the 
general characteristics of a relief map, without perceiving 
or imaging any individual map. This shows the difference 
between percepts and concepts, and mental images and con- 
cepts. 

The Difference Between Percepts and Concepts 

Percepts involve use of the senses and give knowledge of 
things present while concepts imply knowledge about classes 
of things. A person looks at the Wasliington elm. The 
use of the sense of sight is involved, and he gains a percept 
of that particular elm. This same person reads an article 
on elms. No particular tree is described, but the common 
characteristics of the class are noted ; hence he gains a gen- 
eral notion or concept of elm trees. 

Two girls were walking along the street, when one of them 



82 Studies m Psychology 

said, " Look at the rat trap in that store window." Her 
companion looked and obtained a percept of a rat trap. 
Later when a little child asked her what a rat trap was she 
immediately called to mind her knowledge of rat traps so 
as to give the child a general notion of the way they work 
and what they look like and thus she gave him something 
of the same concept she had obtained through perception. 

Mental Images and Concepts 

It is often difficult to distinguish between mental images 
and concepts, since both are re-presentations. A mental 
image is a " picture " implying remembrance of a particular 
thing, while a concept is a general notion suggesting knowl- 
edge of classes of things. For instance, if we had experi- 
enced an earthquake and were asked to describe it, an image 
of our experience would come before us and we should have 
no difficulty. Tliis would be called a mental image. On the 
other hand, if we were asked the meaning of the word " earth- 
quake " we would undoubtedly think of everything we had 
ever heard connected with the word, and then, arranging 
these thoughts in proper order, tell all we knew about an 
earthquake. Thus we should give a definition which would 
be our concept of that phenomenon. 

A boy sees moving pictures on " Coal Mining." These 
pictures show all the details of the industry. Later, the 
subject is taken up in class. Instantly the child recalls the 
pictures he has previously seen, his mental images of this 
industry. After visiting or hearing of many mines he may 
not recall a distinct image of any one of them but whetheij 
he does or not he has a good concept of what they are. 

Kinds of Concepts 
Concepts may be divided into two groups : those referring 



Concepts 83 

to a class of objects or class concepts, and those which sig- 
nify a quality, or abstract concepts. Examples of the first 
are ship, house, flower, dog, etc. Examples of the second 
are mercy, beauty, alertness, sweetness, etc. 

When I speak the word " ship," you immediately think of 
ships in general as distinct from houses, flowers, etc., or to 
go back to the definition, in forming this concept we sepa- 
rate this class of objects from all other classes. We are, in 
a word, classifying. 

On the other hand, when we hear the word " mercy " we 
do not try to think of one class of objects as distinct from 
all others, because mercy is not an object but an abstract 
word, and the only distinction made is to separate one qual- 
ity from all other qualities. 

It will be noticed that all abstract or qualitative words 
indicate abstract concepts. HoAvever, we have more or less 
abstract concepts of concrete things. Anything may be 
thought in abstract form. The fewer and less prominent 
our images of specific trees or of special varieties, when we 
hear, see or use the word tree, and the more we think of 
their nature as diff'erent from that of vegetables, vines and 
other classes of things, the more abstract is our concept. 

Ways of Thinking Concepts 

There are two ways of thinking concepts, in extent and 
in intent. Thinking in extent is the application of one 
word to many objects, or the grouping together of all that 
belong in a class. For example, under quadrilateral may 
be grouped everything that has the form of a parallelogram, 
such as a rectangle, square, rhombus, rhomboid or trapezoid. 
Under furniture, we think of chairs, tables, pianos, book- 
cases, etc. Under building we may group school, library, 
house, barn, etc. 



84 Studies m Psychology 

Thinking in intent is recalling general qualities belonging 
to an object, selecting the characteristics that distinguish it 
from other classes. A quadrilateral is a plane figure having 
four sides. Furniture is whatever is added to the interior 
of a house for use and convenience. A building is a more 
or less permanent structure designed for shelter. 

In extent the concept chair includes dining chairs, rocking 
chairs, wicker chairs, upholstered chairs, etc. This is 
grouping all we can under the class name, or thinking in ex- 
tent. From another point of view a chair is a movable seat 
which has a back. This is thinking in intent or grouping 
and relating abstract qualities. 

There is a definite relation between the extent and the in- 
tent of a term. The greater the extent the less the intent, 
and vice versa. Take the case of quadrilateral. Many fig- 
ures may be grouped under the head of quadrilateral, that is, 
the extent is great. Yet the distinguishing general quali- 
ties are few. A quadrilateral is a plane figure having four 
sides. The intent is small. 

In illustration of the opposite condition take the term 
square. The extent is very limited, including only figures 
of the same shape but varying sizes ; whereas the intent is 
much greater than in the case of the quadrilateral. A 
square is a plane figure having four equal sides and four 
right angles. 

Swnmary 

In summing up the nature of concepts we find any general 
idea wliich we have gained of anything is a concept. 

A concept differs from a percept, first, because a percept 
is particular, while a concept is general ; secondly, a percept 
involves the use of one or more of our senses, whereas a con- 
cept has no immediate connection with the senses. It im- 
plies a general knowledge of things which may have, in the 



Concepts 86 

beginning, sprung from percepts but which has now grown 
from a particular into a general idea. 

A mental image means a particular picture, while a con- 
cept is the product of a great many mental images so thor- 
oughly mixed that the outline of any one is indefinite, yet 
the whole mass, as a general notion, is clearly distinct from 
every other mass. 

A concept is in either one of two divisions, class or ab- 
stract. We have a class concept when we are able to dis- 
tinguish one class of objects from all other classes. We 
have an abstract concept in connection with words which 
represent a quality or a group of related qualities. 

We may think our concepts in extent and in intent. 
Thinking in extent involves the application of one name to 
many objects. Thinking in intent is selecting the specific 
qualities belonging to a class of objects. The law govern- 
ing their relation is, the greater the extent, the less the in- 
tent, and vice versa. 

FORMATION OF CONCEPTS INCIDENTLY 

Under the preceding topic, " Nature of Concepts," we find 
that thinking is dependent upon concepts. There is an im- 
portant distinction between concept and conception, the 
latter often erroneously used in place of the former. Con- 
ception is the act of forming a concept ; therefore a concept 
is the result, conception the process. 

Concepts are formed by means of: 

1 — Percepts. 

2 — Mental images. 

3 — Other concepts. 

Concepts being general and abstract are based upon per- 
cepts which are individual and concrete. To' perceive we 
must use one or more of our senses. The percept " bird," 



86 Studies in Psychology 

gained through sight, might mean the little canary in a 
gilded cage hanging in the room, while the usual concept 
" bird " would be an animal which has feathers and can fly, 
regardless of color and size. A child sees goldfish in his 
home aquarium. Later he sees fish bought to eat, even 
catches small ones himself. His visual percepts develop a 
concept of " fish " as a creature of different colors and sizes, 
inhabiting the water and used for food. 

Another child may hear a piano at home, in the theater, 
or at school, and form a concept of the sound of a piano 
through his auditory percepts. A child may smell of dif- 
ferent kinds of perfumes and gain a concept of perfumer)^ 
by his sense of smell. He may prick himself with a needle 
and after feeling of other pointed objects, will conceive 
through his sense of touch that all sharp pointed instruments 
prick. Children eat sugar, custards, cakes, ice cream, and 
through their taste percepts form a concept of sweet. 

We very readiW form concepts of remote things through 
mental images, if words are so used that mental pictures 
corresponding to the percept of the objects are brought to 
our minds. Comparatively few people ever see an iceberg, 
but many have a concept through percepts of ice, mountains, 
etc. ; similarly with aeroplane, prairie, and desert. Any one 
knows what sand looks like and from the mental picture can 
imagine a large, barren tract of sand as a desert. 

The third way of forming concepts, namely, through other 
concepts, is illustrated thus : a person having no idea of a 
flamingo finds in the dictionary that it is a bird as large as 
a stork, and is scarlet. By combining his former concepts 
of stork and scarlet, he forms the new concept of flamingo. 
The process used in adjusting these ideas is conception and 
the result is a concept. 

By describing a volcano using the words " mountain," 



Concepts 87 

" smoke," " rumbling," " lava," etc., we can cause a child 
unfamiliar with the term to form a new concept. A child 
asks what a grape-fruit is, and is told it is a fruit a little 
larger than an orange and light yellow in color. His new 
concept is based upon his knowledge of the familiar words 
used and thus his concept is formed through words. 

Development of Concepts 

In the formation of concepts there are successive stages : 
observation, comparison, abstraction, and generalization. 

Observation supplies a percept or image of two or more 
things resembling one another, as a " crow " and a " robin." 
Comparison naturally follows and the child discovers that a 
crow and robin have the same characteristics, feathers and 
wings. Comparison, then, is always essential in forming 
concepts. Abstraction is the result of especial attention 
paid to the similarities noted in comparing the percepts or 
images. The concept is formed from the qualities common 
to all members of the class, disregarding those belonging only 
to some of the class, size, color, etc. 

Generalization is that stage in which the child reaches the 
idea of the essential qualities of the class and consciously 
affirms the truth, " birds have feathers, two legs, etc." The 
idea of the child in the preceding instance would be the con- 
cept " bird." But if he thought of " red-breasted " it would 
recall the robin. This would be a special quality not per- 
taining to the whole class. In order to generalize, one must 
group objects into classes according to a few characteristics 
common to all individuals of the class. 

Concepts Formed and Changed 

Wliile concepts are being formed, they undergo partial 
and often complete changes. They alter with the growth 



88 Studies m Psychology 

of judgment and reason, and with each new experience in 
seeing the objects previously classified. 

A small child was walking on the streets with her mother. 
They passed a man with a beard. The child having seen 
the picture of " The Christ " at home, said to her mother, 
" Mamma, is that God? " Because her concept of God was 
a man with a beard, she thought any man possessing one was 
God. Aside from being incorrect this child's concept was 
formed incidentally or through experience. 

A small boy saw a cat's tail moving, and followed his im- 
pulse to catch it. The cat, of course, scratched him. He 
never tried to pull its tail again. His concept of cats had 
been changed. 

These incidental concepts are formed unconsciously. We 
do not think of them until, at some time, we use the truth or 
knowledge thus stored away. The following is an example 
of a concept corrected by experience. A little boy thought 
five pennies, or even two or three pennies, of more value than 
one nickel. His concept of value was based on the number 
and not on worth. One day he went to the store with three 
pennies to spend. His brother, having a nickel, bought the 
same kind of candy as the younger, but, of course, received 
more. Through his experience, the child finally got the con- 
cept that the greatest number of pieces of money does not 
necessarily buy the most. 

A grape-vine grew near a cliild's house. One day she 
tasted of the grapes before they were ripe and naturally 
the fruit was sour. Later, when the grapes were blue, she 
tasted them and found them sweet. She concluded that 
green grapes are always sour and blue ones sweet. Later, 
when her mother offered her some white grapes (which 
looked green) she refused them, saying that they were sour. 
It was a long time before her incidentally formed concept 



Concepts 89 

was changed. 

Although concepts may be formed through experience 
without conscious effort, we may form them intentionally, 
that is, with that purpose in mind. A boy had heard the 
words " aeroplane " and " aviation " used. He had a vague 
concept of their meanings. Finally in a reference book he 
discovered the more complete meanings of the terms, thereby 
forming new concepts based on old ones. Later he witnessed 
several exhibitions given by professionals, and, by studying 
their machines, was able to construct one for himself. He 
had then formed a complete concept of an aeroplane through 
conscious or intentional effort. 

Correct and Incorrect Concepts 

Both correct and incorrect concepts are often modified. 
A concept already formed grows through the acquisition of 
new ideas. One person had a concept that fuel was always 
wood. In visiting friends, she learned that coal and gas 
were used. Later her concept was modified by the knowledge 
that electricity is employed for a similar purpose. 

A girl thought that " text " meant a verse from the Bible. 
In grammar school the teacher spoke of " text " book^. 
Here the concept expanded. In both examples the concepts 
were correct as far as they went but needed modification as 
regards definiteness and accuracy. 

Incorrect concepts must sometimes be completely changed. 
A young lady supposed that there was an animal, all the 
meat of which was called " corned beef." At school, where 
cooking was taught, she soon discovered her error. A girl 
was asked to illustrate a story or poem about a window. 
She saw the title, " The Land of Counterpane," and said, 
" That will be a good poem to illustrate ; it must be some- 
thing about a window." She had never heard the covering 



90 Studies in Psychology/ 

of a bed called a counterpane, and she concluded that it 
meant a new kind of pane in a window. In this case her con- 
cept was incorrect, although she founded it on the familiar 
word " pane." 

A little boy who had never seen a real pig formed his con- 
cept from the story of the " Three Little Pigs." He 
thought that a pig was about the size of a cat, walked on his 
hind legs, and carried a basket. One day when in the coun- 
try he saw an animal larger than a cat called a " pig." This 
was the first modification of his incorrect concept. Then 
he saw it walk on all fours, and thought the pig had fallen 
down and was crawling, as he had sometimes done. Another 
difference was that the pig carried no basket. Thus the 
child's original concept was entirely incorrect. 

In geography the North Pole to many children means a 
material object, since their concept of a " pole " is a tree 
minus its branches. Similarly, children believe the equator 
to be a red hot line around the center of the earth. 

Degree of Defniteness 

Our concepts vary in their degree of dcfiniteness : The 
first degree implies ability to distinguish one class of objects 
from another, or to know what kind of an object is sug- 
gested by a word. Possessing concepts of the second degree 
one is able to name particular characteristics of certain ob- 
jects. If his concept is of the third degree he can name the 
larger group to which it belongs and the characteristics 
common to all objects of that class and that distinguish it 
from any other class. In the first case the concept is vague, 
in the second it is more definite, in the third scientifically 
accurate. A person asks the meaning of " consequence." 
One person has an indefinite idea of its meaning, another 
uses it correctly but cannot tell the exact meaning, while 



Concepts 91 

still another can use it and give a perfect definition of its 
meaning. 

" Mongolian " may suggest a race of people as distinct 
from the Caucasian or Malay. If the concept is of the 
second degree of definiteness, a person may name the Chinese 
as Mongolians because they have yellow skin and black hair. 
A concept of the third degree would be an accurate definition 
as " members of the Mongol race inhabiting Mongolia, be- 
tween China and Siberia ; the name frequently given to Chi- 
nese and all yellow people of Asia." 

Relation of Concepts to Reasoning 

All reasoning requires concepts, but concepts develop 
without reasoning if the}^ grow in our minds unconsciously 
and incidentally. 

We have a concept of a pencil without ever consciously 
reasoning how or why it differs from any other object. A 
man finds that rats infest his barn and eat his grain. He 
knows that rats like sunflower seeds, so he sets a trap con- 
taining a quantity of them, and meets with successful results. 
He reasons that if a rat likes sunflower seeds, a trap baited 
with them will catch the rats. He could not have reasoned 
without concepts. He must have had concepts of the words 
" like " and " sunflower seed." 

There are two forms of reasoning, inductive and deductive, 
and concepts are closely connected with both forms. 

Induction 

Induction is the process of forming a general truth from 
particular instances. We begin with cases included in our 
experience and generalize beyond it. 

Cork, which is lighter than an equal volume of water, floats 
on water. Ivory soap, which is lighter than water, floats; 



92 Studies m Psychology 

so does a leaf or piece of wood, each of which is lighter than 
an equal volume of water. Reasoning thus step by step, we 
finally formulate the general truth that anything which is 
lighter than water will float. 

A teacher wishes to show that electricity may be produced 
by friction. She takes a rubber comb, rubs it with a piece 
of flannel, applies it to a needle. It attracts the needle. 
Evidentl}'^ the comb has been electrified. She then goes 
through the same process with a piece of glass tubing and a 
piece of silk, with the same result. The glass tubing has 
been electrified by friction. She may make several similar 
experiments and the pupils infer from these the general 
truth, electricity may be produced by friction. 

Deduction 

Deduction is the exact opposite of induction. In deduc- 
tion we apply the general truth to particular cases. 

The general statement is given, " the nearer the equator, 
the hotter the climate." Therefore, Mexico must be hot 
because it is near the equator ; Alaska must be very cold 
because it is far from the equator and near the North Pole ; 
the United States, being half-way between the pole and 
equator, must have a medium temperature. 

A teacher gives the definition, a noun is a name. The 
pujDils apply this truth to examples found in sentences. 
In the sentence, " The horse is wHte," horse is a name, there- 
fore it is a noun. This is an example of deductive reasoning. 

Development of Concepts mth the Development of 
Language 

Perception can take place without speech, but language is 
necessary in forming definite concepts. In order to have 
well-developed concepts, a person must be accurate in his 



Concepts 93 

language, for true concepts depend upon a correct and thor- 
ough understanding of words. Nevertheless, we cannot say 
that a child not able to talk has no concepts, for he may 
have a very crude sort. An infant's mind is more concerned 
with sensations than with concepts, because the small child 
thinks of things in particular rather than in general. He 
realizes the distinction between animate and inanimate ob- 
jects, that is, he classifies them, though very incompletely, 
as living or not living. Such concepts may be fonned with- 
out language. 

A child may form class ideas before the class name is 
familiar to him. For instance, his dog is named Rover. 
The dog is merely Rover to the child; he has never heard 
the name dog mentioned. He sees other dogs and classifies 
them in liis o^vn mind, distinguishing them from people, 
horses, etc., even if he does not know the class name, dog. 

The first words and concepts of children are acquired in 
connection with objects and experiences. The first few 
words aid in learning new words and forming new concepts. 
At first a child's knowledge of the meaning of a word is very 
narrow, consequently his concept will be very incomplete. 

A child often knows a word by sound but has no corre- 
sponding concept ; and sometimes he may not be able to speak 
a word, but still have a correct concept of it. This is best 
illustrated in reciting poetry. Children may know the words 
but perhaps have no idea of the meaning. A child in recit- 
ing " The Children's Hour " pronounced the word " ban- 
ditti " correctly but had no concept, while at another time 
she mispronounced " occupation," although she had the cor- 
rect concept of it. A whole class was talking about cross- 
pollination of flowers by bees, and none of them even knew 
what pollen was. 

After enough separate concepts have been acquired the 



94 Studies in Psychology 

child puts them together to form a sentence. It is in the 
formation of sentences that words are liable to be used in- 
correctly because of wrong concepts. A girl said that the 
city was going to have a hyperdermic of measles, instead of 
an epidemic. A boy on being asked what a certain teacher 
taught at school said, " She gives execution lessons," mean- 
ing elocution lessons. 

These instances show hoAv necessary it is for a person to 
have a clear, definite idea of the meaning of a word before 
he can use it correctly. 

JUDGMENT AND REASONING 

In perception we form single ideas ; in concepts, general 
ideas. In judging we compare the single or general ideas 
to find the relationship between them. Judging requires 
comparison and decision. " To judge is to assert an agree- 
ment or disagreement between two ideas." A judgment, 
then, is the result of judging. Judgments precede speech. 
When a child says, " The bread is dood " (good) he has gone 
through a process of judging. He thought " dood " first, 
then said it, later " bread dood," then " The bread is dood." 
The sentence is an expression of a judgment. 

Reasoning requires at least three judgments. It may be 
defined thus: reasoning is perceiving relation between judg- 
ments. We see two things with a few similar characteris- 
tics ; a certain statement is true of one of them, then it must 
be true of both. 

" This water spaniel can swim " ; " Other water spaniels 
are like him." " Hence all water spaniels can swim," or, in 
another form of reasoning, the general truth, " All water 
spaniels can swim," is used as a premise ; next, " This dog is 
a water spaniel " is given as the particular truth, followed 
by the conclusion, " Therefore he can swim." 



Concepts 95 

Summary 

Concepts are formed through percepts, mental images, and 
other concepts. 

In forming concepts the mind must pass through four 
successive stages: observation, by which the person notices 
two or more things resembling one another; comparison, in 
which he compares images or percepts, noticing especially 
the similar qualities ; abstraction, whereby the similar quali- 
ties are viewed separately ; generalization, in which he groups 
things having similar qualities and thus forms a concept. 

While concepts are being perfected they go through par- 
tial or complete changes by means of incidental experiences 
and by intentional efforts. A true concept already formed 
may be enlarged through addition of new ideas. An untrue 
concept is often completely changed with the acquisition of 
new knowledge. 

There are three degrees of definiteness in concepts. Those 
of the first degree are indefinite or vague ; of the second, more 
complete; third, scientifically accurate. 

All reasoning must make use of concepts. There are two 
kinds of reasoning — inductive and deductive. By inductive 
reasoning we apply a general truth to particular facts. 

We must have a clear, thorough understanding of words 
and their uses in order to form concepts. Judgments result 
from comparing single or general ideas to find the relation 
between them. Reasoning is perceiving relations between 
judgments. 

FORMATION OF CONCEPTS THROUGH TEACHING 

How to Help Children to Form Concepts 
A child begins to form concepts when but a few months 
old, and continues the process as long as he lives. In early 
life he does this incidentally and unconsciously. For exam-^ 



96 Stvdies in Psychology 

pie, he soon finds out that people move about and inanimate 
objects do not. When a year or so old, a child has begun 
to learn truths regarding the law of gravity, but he has not 
generalized them. As soon as he begins to sit up he learns 
that, unless he is careful, gravity pulls him over. He knows 
that if he puts things over the edge of the table they will fall. 
He has never thought much about it, but he shows by his 
actions that he knows that unsupported bodies fall. 

A child is continually making his own simple inductions. 
For example, the general name " house " suggests to the 
child's mind only the house in which he lives. After a while 
he learns incidentally that " house " refers not only to his 
own home, but to all his friends' homes and, finally, to every 
structure in which people may live. Again, circumstances 
cause him to notice that a cube will stand firmly and a ball 
will not. These concrete situations prepare the way for 
generalizations that may be used in reasoning. 

After the age of six, the child gets concepts more con- 
sciously. Then the best way of helping him to gain con- 
cepts is through inductive teaching, that is, leading him to 
derive general laws or truths from particular facts, aided by 
words tliat call to his mind images and concepts already 
familiar to him. As the child advances, he makes larger and 
more logical inductions, thereby gaining broader and more 
accurate truths. 

The essentials of gaining new concepts by the inductive 
method are as follows : 

1 — A clear idea of the aim. 

2 — A sufficient number of related individual facts. 

3 — Their arrangement in such a way as to make the 

general idea evident. 

4 — Application of the truth gained, by which the con- 

cept becomes more accurate. 



Concepts 97 

The Formal Steps in Teachmg 

The formal steps in teachmg children new general truths 
are these: 

1 — Preparation — Statement of aim and recalling of 

knowledge already possessed. 

2 — Presentation of new material. 
S — Comparison. 

4 — Generalization. 

5 — Application. 

The purpose of stating the aim is to arouse interest ; there- 
fore it should leave some question in the child's mind which 
will make him wish to learn the answer and know more about 
the subject. The teacher may have as an aim the gaining 
of a certain concept, but state a simpler one to the class. 
For example, the teacher may wish to teach the truth that 
multiplying the numerator and denominator of a fraction by 
the same number does not change the value of the fraction. 
She need not give this aim to the children, but might say, 
" I am going to show you a little trick so you may be like 
little magicians when you want to make fractions do as you 
want them to do." 

In the preparatory step, as many ideas as possible, re- 
lated to the subject in hand and useful as regards the aim, 
should be called up. This familiar knowledge is the founda- 
tion upon which to build the new, for the child is incapable 
of forming new concepts, inductively, unless his mind is pre- 
pared. For example, preparation for teaching of the pro- 
noun would be a review of the noun. 

In the presentation of the lesson, representative particu- 
lar facts should be given or suggested to the class, so ar- 
ranged as to make the goal toward which the teacher is 
working, plain to the children. For example, " What ques- 



98 Studies m Psychology 

tions have you heard people ask of the information man at 
the depot? " " When does the train go? " " Write ' when ' 
on the board." " What other questions have you heard? " 
" Where does the train go ? " " Write ' where ' on the 
board." " How may I get to Boston? " " Write ' how ' on 
the board." The children are thus made ready to study 
adverbs and supplied with material for comparison and gen- 
eralization. 

In the comparison, we should dwell only on likeness and 
contrast in leading up to the general truth. 

In this statement, " The greater the struggle for exist- 
ence, the sharper the wits," we could compare the life and 
characteristics of the fox with those of the woodchuck or 
porcupine. 

After studying the particular facts presented, the pupil 
should be able to grasp the general law and state it clearly. 
The definite statement of the general truth prevents vague- 
ness of thought and serves to fix it in the minds of the chil- 
dren. This step is called generalization. 

Each step of the inductive lesson should be understood be- 
fore the next is taken up. The application or the applying 
of the general truth comes under deduction, although it helps 
complete the process of induction. 

The best way to get children to form concepts is by induc- 
tive and deductive lessons. These two, however, are not the 
only kinds of lessons used in the schoolroom. There are 
many others which are essential ; for instance, the recitation, 
drill, review, and test lessons. 

Inductive Lessons 

The following may be taken as examples of inductive les- 
sons: Lesson (1) Teacher's aim — To teach the three 
things which promote a city's growth along commercial lines. 



Concepts 99 

Preparation: Call up previous knowledge of New York- 
City. Statement of aim: We are going to learn what 
makes New York such a large city. Show pictures of New 
York harbor, etc. 

Presentation — Each child should open his book to the 
map of the United States. Locate New York City. Why 
do the steamers come here? (Large steamers reach New 
York from all over the world, ) Show the class that the hin- 
terland is surrounding country. What is the hinterland of 
New York? What are the products of this hinterland? Is 
it a good hinterland then? Name all the water connections 
of New York City from map observation. Of what use are 
they to New York City? How could the products of this 
hinterland be sent to New York City except by water? 
From the map, tell with how many places New York is con- 
nected by rail. Is this an advantage? 

Comparison — Locate Boston. Is it as large as New 
York City? Wliy not? Compare Philadelphia, Baltimore, 
Fitchburg, and San Diego in the same way, bringing out in 
each case what accounts for its lack of growth as compared 
with New York. 

Generalization — From the lesson, the children should be 
able to tell what the necessities of a commercial city are : 

1 — A good harbor. 

2 — A good hinterland. 

3 — Good means of transportation. 

If the pupil knows how to think inductively, he will be able 
to formulate these general truths from his knowledge of the 
subject. 

Lesson (2) Aim — To teach the receipt. 

Preparation — Calling up of previous knowledge. Wliat 
was the last business paper that we learned to make out? 
A bill. You may each make a bill of only two items. Name 



100 Studies in Psychology 

the different parts of your bill. 

Statement of aim — How many of you have ever heard of 
a person's paying a bill, and then some time later a second 
demand for the money being made? What was looked for? 
The receipt. Was it important to find it? Why? To-day 
we'll learn how to make a receipt. 

Presentation — What was the last thing you did to the 
bill? Receipted it. Why? 

Suppose you had received a bill from John Smith for 
$8.25. If you took the bill to the store and paid it, what 
would he do? Receipt it. But if you had left the bill at 
home and you still wished to pay it, what could John Smith 
do to show that you had paid him? He might make out a 
receipt. 

How many have ever seen one of these? (Show a receipt 
blank.) Does any one know what it is called? (If not, 
tell them.) Now, who can tell me what it is used for? Let 
us make one on the board. What would you say was the 
first thing to write? What is written at the beginning of 
a letter or bill? The heading. What do we put in the 
heading of a letter? The date, etc. The date of a receipt 
is of much more importance than the date of a letter, and 
must always be written. 

Wliat was the first thing written when you receipted your, 
bills? " Received payment." We will write something simi- 
lar to that. Received from John C. Raymond. What was 
received from John C. Raymond? Then we will put that on 
the next line. Eight and 25-100 dollars. We will write it 
out so there can be no mistake about it. Notice the way I 
have written the cents, 25-100 dollars. Is that correct? 
Explain. If Jolui C. Raymond were dishonest he might 
write twenty before the eight. How can we prevent this? 
(Suggest many ways.) 



Concepts 101 

Is there anything else you would like on your receipt? 
If J. C. Raymond owed John Smith for groceries and also 
for a wagon, what would you like written on the receipt? 
Which bill did he pay the money on? Then on the next line 
we will write : " For groceries," or " On account of gro- 
ceries." There are two lines on this blank for those words, 
so we will draw a line through the unused one. 

What is this short line for, do\^Ti here at the right? Sig-. 
nature. We have completed the receipt now, except for one 
thing. On this line here in the left hand corner, we will 
write in figures the amount paid, $8.25. We now have 

FiTCHBUKG, Mass., Jan. 20, 1913. 
Received from John C. Raymond 

Eight and 25-100 Dollars 

On account of groceries 

$8.25 John Smith. 

Comparison — Turn to your receipted bills. Tell me as 
far as you can how the receipted bill is like this receipt. Is 
it unlike in any wa}^? 

Generalization — The first line contains what? 
" second " 

" third 

" fourth and fifth lines contain what? 
" sixth line contains what? 
When is a receipt given? To whom? By whom? What 
words must a receipt contain? (To be legal.) What is a 
receipt ? 

Application — Suppose that I owed you $5.25 for mer- 
chandise and paid it to-day. Write me a receipt. 

This next lesson may be taught either by letting the 
children do the work themselves, or watching a workman. 
Lesson (3). Papering a room. 



102 Studies in Psychology 

Aim — To teach papering a room. 

What part of the room are we going to paper? The 
sides. Do we paper down to the floor? No. Why not? 
Because the baseboards go around the room and are about 
eight inches high. Does anything go at the top of the walls ? 
Yes, either a border or a molding. How wide is a strip of 
paper? Measure it. 18% in. What do you notice on the 
edges of the paper? There is a /4-inch margin on each edge. 
What is this for? To lap the next strip on, cutting off^ the 
edge not needed. Will the strips match anywhere? No, it 
has to be matched. Do we have any Avaste in so doing? 
Show them how this comes about. 

How long do you suppose a roll is? Let them guess and 
then tell them that there are 16 yards, or 48 feet, in a roll. 

What should be done about the windows and doors? 
Show them that, unless there are a great number, it will not 
be necessary to allow for them. Now that we have the dis- 
tance around the room and the width of a strip, how shall 
we find out the number of strips that we need? Divide the 
distance around the room by the width of the roll. How 
shall we find out the number of strips in a roll? Divide the 
length of a roll by the length of a strip. How shall Ave find 
the number of rolls that are needed to cover the walls of the 
room? Divide the number of strip's needed by the number 
of strips in a roll. Ahvays alloAv for a little waste. 

How much shall we alloAv for a border? Show them that 
if they allow for one-half width of the border that they Avill 
be sure of coming out all right. 

How shall we find how much border we need? By finding 
the distance around the room. Hoav shall we find out the 
number of rolls Ave wish if it is 48 feet long? Divide the per- 
imeter of the room by the length of the roll. From the 
above, the following rules should be obtained: 



Concepts 103 

1. To find the number of rolls for the border, divide the 
perimeter of the room by 48 feet. 

2. To find the number of rolls for the sides, find the per- 
imeter of the room and divide it by 18 inches. Find the 
height of the room, divide the length of the roll by the 
height, then divide the number of strips wanted by the num- 
ber of strips in a roll. 

3. To find the cost. Multiply the number of rolls by the 
cost of a single roll or the number of feet in the rolls by 
the cost per foot. 

Summary 

One of the best ways to help children to form concepts is 
by the inductive method. 

The essentials of this method are: 
1 — A clear statement of the aim. 
2 — A sufficient number of related, individual facts. 

3 — Their arrangement in such a way as to make the 

general idea evident. 

4 — Application of the truth gained. 

Inductive lessons are not in order unless there is a general- 
ization to be made. Applying the generalization is really a 
process of deduction but it helps in completing the induction 
by making the truth clearer. The greater the number of 
particulars considered in reaching the generalization the less 
need is there for many applications. 

TEACHING THE USE OF CONCEPTS 

Deduction 

Induction, as has been said, is the primary method by 
which knowledge is brought to the mind, and the chief source 
of general truths. 

Deduction is the method by which general truths are used 



104 Studies in Psychology 

as an aid in gaining new truths. For example, if one knows 
that all things lighter than water will float he can discover 
what objects will float without putting them in the water. 
Deductive reasoning is not necessarily confined to the school 
room, for children form many of their ideas of things 
through this method and sometimes reach incorrect conclu- 
sions. For instance, a child had been playing with apples 
and had eaten them. He got the idea that anything which 
was round was edible. One day he was playing with a ball 
and tried to eat it. Another little boy who was having his 
face and hands washed said, " If I was a little brown baby, 
I wouldn't have to be washed." 

When any new subject is taken up by a student he must 
in some way gain knowledge of the general laws or truths 
belonging to that branch of learning. This is generally 
done in part by inductive reasoning before he can use deduc- 
tion. 

In the process of deduction, the need for analysis is as 
great as in that of induction. In order to know upon what 
to base the solution of a problem one must have a clear 
understanding of the problem itself. We know if a child is 
to learn the climate of a country by the deductive method 
he must understand the meaning of the word climate and all 
the things that influence it, then when giving the geograph- 
ical situation of a country he can make a correct deduction 
as to what the climate of that country will be. 

Some Deductive Lessons 

Lesson (1) Influence of Ocean Currents on Climate. 

Preparation — Review the general truths as to what influ- 
ences climate. 

Aim — To find out why the climate of Great Britain is 
warmer than that of Labrador. 



Concepts 105 

Presentation — Take maps and find Labrador. Find 
Great Britain. Compare latitudes (same). What would 
we infer, then, of the climates of these two countries? Same. 
Compare altitudes (same). If the latitudes and altitudes 
are the same, we would expect the climates to be the same. 
Note the nearness to ocean (same). Then, if the latitude, 
altitude, and distance from ocean are the same, what would 
we expect of the climate of these two countries ? What have 
we in the ocean which influences the climate? Warm and 
cold ocean currents. What current flows near Labrador? 
Labrador current. Is it warm or cold? Cold. What is its 
influence on the climate of Labrador? What current passes 
Great Britain? Gulf Stream. Kind? Warm. What is 
its influence on Great Britain? Why, then, is the climate 
diff^erent ? 

Lesson (2) Verbs. 

General rule — A verb is a word which shows action or 
asserts. 

Presentation — Put the following sentences on the board : 
The boy walks to school. 
The girl sews. 
She opened the box. 
The deer runs swiftly. 

Have the cliildren notice which words show action or 
assert and thus decide which are verbs. 

Application — Use readers. Give a page and paragraph. 
Have the children pick out the verbs. Put a list of verbs 
on the blackboard and have sentences formed containing 
these verbs. 

Lesson (3) — Metric System. 

Preparation — Discuss the English measures, and be cer- 
tain that the pupils understand the meaning of a standard 
measure. 



106 Studies in Psychology 

Aim — To teach the linear measure of the metric system. 
Presentation — This s^^stem depends upon the meter which 
is a certain part of the earth's circumference that is divided 
into equal parts. The prefixes are taken from the Latin 
language: mille, meaning a thousand; centum, hundred; 
decem, ten, giving the prefixes of milli, centi, deci. Factors 
are formed as follows : 

10 millimeters equal 1 centimeter. 
10 centimeters equal 1 decimeter. 
10 decimeters equal 1 meter. 
The multiples are from the Greek : 

Deca equals 1 ; hecta, 100; kilo, 1000. 
10 meters equal 1 decameter. 
10 decameters equal 1 hectameter. 
10 hectameters equal 1 kilometer. 
Have the children learn this table. Then comes the most 
important step, namely, application. 

Application — Read 10 cm., 12 dm., 100 m., 10 dm., 10 
km., 25 hm., 15,678 km., 18,943 dm., 18,356 dm. 

1 meter equals 39.37 inches. Change 15 km. to inches, 
10 hm. to inches. (Provide many other such examples.) 
Change examples in inches to meters, and vice versa, until 
all are familiar with the use of the table. 

The deductive lessons are used to the best advantage in 
the exact sciences, because those sciences seem to be more 
easily mastered if the general law is first given and then ap- 
plied to particular cases, such as a theorem in geometry 
applied in new propositions and corollaries. The real ad- 
vantage in deductive lessons is that they give us practice in 
using our knowledge of general truths. We need more de- 
ductive lessons, as will be shown by the following illustration : 
Two young ladies were out in front of a building one noon 
trying to find out which direction was north. One of them 



Concepts 107 

said she knew the shadow which was cast at noon pointed 
toward the south. If these young ladies had had more de- 
ductive lessons they would have immediately applied the 
general truths which they already knew regarding the di- 
rection of the sun's rising and which way it passes through 
the sky in the northern hemisphere. They could have de- 
ducted from these truths that the shadow did not point to- 
ward the south, but toward the north. 

The disadvantage of deductive lessons is that concepts 
are formed from other concepts. This sometimes gives ideas 
which may not be accurate. 

Summary 

The deductive method of reasoning is not confined to the 
school room, for very small children gain many of their ideas 
of things about them by this method of reasoning. The use 
of concepts may be taught with beneficial results by the 
deductive lesson. In such a lesson, the pupil is led from 
general truths to particular facts. In other words, he 
makes use of his concepts or general truths. 

Since numerous concepts and general truths are needed 
before deductive lessons can be successfully taught, they are 
not used frequently before the sixth grade. 



VI 
PERCEPTION 

INTRODUCTION 

SO gradually and so naturally does the power of percep- 
tion come to us that we do not stop to think how wonder- 
ful it is until psychology shows us how it develops. 

A normal student was once asked to formulate a defini- 
tion of perception without direct reference to any text book. 
The proposition confronting her seemed difl^cult. Her mind 
was busily engrossed with this problem on her homeward 
journey from the day's recitations. As she approached the 
doorstep, her small sister, who was busily engaged in play 
in the middle of the floor, called out her name. She had 
recognized her footsteps. On entering the house, the child 
remarked the muddy condition of her rubbers and asked if 
it had been raining. Then suddenly she sniffed and ran off 
to the kitchen to attend to some burning food. The student 
had been at home just three minutes, and within this time 
her sister had made a number of observations. The student 
at once looked upon them as material which might prove 
helpful as a foundation for her work, and she readily an- 
alyzed them. " My footsteps," she said, " were recognized 
because of previous knowledge of their sound. The fact 
that I was in the habit of reaching home at the same hour 
each day, together with the familiar sound of my footsteps, 
helped my sister to recognize me. Through sight she was 
able to tell that there had been a recent rainstorm. The 
sense of smell brought to her mind the fact of a burning 

108 



Perception 109 

substance." The outgrowth of this analysis was the fol- 
ing definition which proved to be adequate in its nature: 
" Perception is the act of acquiring knowledge through the 
aid of the senses." 

SENSORY AND MOTOR FACTORS IN PERCEPTION 

The importance of sensory and motor factors in percep- 
tion is clearly shown by the following instance. Mary was 
blindfolded on Hallowe'en and asked to touch various things 
on a table and tell what they were. With the exception of 
one or two objects she was able to name them. 

Let us consider the facts involved in the perception of a 
stone. The stone was felt by moving and pressing the fin- 
gers against it. The feeling caused by the pressure of the 
fingers upon the stone is called a sensation. It felt hard and 
smooth; that is, the pressure was unyielding and even. 
When one realizes the meaning of such sensations perception 
takes place. Perception represents sensation, plus a certain 
amount of additional activity, especially that of recognition. 
There are several factors involved in the above illustration. 
The finger tips felt the stone through the aid of end organs 
in the skin, nerves and nerve cells in the brain. Without 
these three, there is no sensation or perception. The brain 
acts according to the sensations received. If the fingers 
come in contact with a hot radiator, the brain sends a mes- 
sage to the fingers ordering removal. 

The different senses, touch, sight, hearing, smell, taste, 
motor, and organic, act to a large extent as protectors of 
the body. The eye and ear are the most important sense 
protectors of the body. The sight and sound of an ap- 
proaching automobile warns a person who is about to cross 
the street to wait until the machine has passed. The ear, in 
such a case, often causes one to look for the automobile. 



110 Studies in Psychology 

The eye enables one to tell more accurately how near the 
machine is and at what speed it is approaching. If the eye 
and ear inform us that the machine is not very near or ap- 
proaching at high speed, we may judge the way safe for 
crossing at that time. The eye often serves to warn one 
against improper food. The eye prevents many accidents, 
as falling down stairs, burning one's self, etc. The value of 
the ear would not be so great did it not call the eye as an 
assistant. Touch is helpful in interpreting sight sensations, 
while taste and smell are less continually useful. 

The senses aid one another to a great extent, thus increas- 
ing their general usefulness to the body and mind. None of 
the senses can be used effectively without movements and the 
sensations of movement that mingle with the special sensa- 
tions. The loss of a single sense, even with other senses 
highly developed, leaves some trace of incomplete mental 
development. 

Touch 

The nerve endings of the sense of touch are located most 
thickly in the tip of the tongue, the lips and the finger tips. 
These sensitive spots, you will notice, are the most movable 
parts of the body. The sensitiveness of these organs is due 
to these muscular movements and to experience as well as to 
the number of nerve endings. 

The sensations brought about by pressure vary to quite 
an extent and the varying degrees of pressure bring about 
perception. The perception of hardness and softness de- 
pends upon intensity of pressure, while perceptions of rough- 
ness and smoothness are caused by variations and constancy 
of pressure. The pressure of a polished surface is even, 
therefore we perceive that the surface is smooth. The pres- 
sure of sandpaper upon the fingers is uneven, therefore per- 
ception says that sandpaper is rough. Yielding surface, as 



Perception 111 

cotton batting, is perceived as soft. 

Touch, as we ordinarily think of it, depends upon pres- 
sure plus other movements. If we move our fingers over a 
velvet surface, we gain a much clearer idea of the texture or 
quality of the velvet than if we simply lay the fingers upon 
the surface. We need only to watch people at counters as 
they buy things to see to what a great extent the muscular 
movements of the fingers aid the sense of touch. 

Excessive stimulation by pressure causes pain. If the 
hand be brought down hard upon the surface of a table, pain 
results. In the case of a needle, slight pressure is painless, 
while hard pressure is the opposite. 

Heat and cold stimuli are received through the skin. Cold 
often carries with it the perception of dampness. Whether 
an object be perceived as wet or dry is largely determined by 
temperature. A cold, dry cloth is often felt to be cold and 
damp. If water be colder than the surrounding air it is 
distinguished as cold water easily. But if the temperature 
be like the temperature of the air, perception, through the 
skin, is somewhat baffled. 

The following experiment was tried on a blindfolded stu- 
dent: the subject was touched on different parts of the hand 
and face with a pencil. On some places the lead felt cold, on 
others warm, thus causing the student to think that she was 
touched with diff'erent objects. The feeling of the varying 
temperatures is due to the fact that there are hot and cold 
spots on the body which give heat and cold sensations espe- 
cisiWy. 

The sense of touch is of great value, not only to man, but 
to animals as well. All animals possess this sense and many 
of the lower animals have no other. The amoeba, for exam- 
ple, closes upon that which he feels is fit for assimilation, and 
shrinks from that which does not appeal to his sense of touch. 



112 Stiidies in Psychology 

Sight 

A student, on returning to her room after her first visit 
to another suite, was asked by her roommate, " How is the 
suite furnished? " The girl questioned was able to give a 
general description as to size, form, and color of the suite 
and its furnishings. All this was perceived through the eye. 

Primarily size and form perceptions are received through 
the sense of touch, but this is largely done away with after 
early childhood, because sight tells us how familiar things, 
will feel if touched. The child may for some time be deceived 
in regard to solids or rounded objects and needs to feel of 
them to understand their real shape and size. 

Light and color perceptions are received through the eye 
alone. Color perceptions are produced by the vibrations of 
ether waves. The varying vibrations produce colors and 
their many shades and tints. A combination of all colors 
produces white and light. 

The movability of the eye, which is greater than that of 
any other sense organ, gives one power to receive sensations 
and perceptions more rapidly. Thus in reading a book, one 
would naturally raise the eyes, at least in reading at the top 
of the page, and lower them at the bottom of the page. 
Without moving the eye there is quite a range in which one 
may perceive. For example, one student writes, " I am now 
facing a wall on which I can see several pictures. But be- 
sides the wall I can see out of a window which is on my right. 
By merely moving the eyeballs, I can see out of another win- 
dow which is at right angles with the wall. If I move my 
head I can more easily see out of the window." The mov- 
ability of the head and body greatly aids the eye. By move- 
ments of the head and body the progress of a bird or other 
swiftly moving object may be followed, as it could not be 
otherwise. 



Perception 113 

Objects may be so placed as to give the best range for the 
eye. A reader changes the position of his book or paper 
as he reads, so that he may perceive most easily and rapidly. 
Various changes of position affect the perceptions of the eye. 
For instance, a plate appears oval in some positions and 
round in others. It thus takes some time to learn to per- 
ceive the real shape of objects. 

In very few animals does sight play as important a part 
as in man. The senses of touch, smell and hearing are usu- 
ally more valuable to animals, though some human beings 
make much use of them. 

The sense of sight is a wonderful gift to man, largely 
because it enables him to perceive so much more quickly 
than by the other senses. To perceive all the objects in a 
room by touch would take many times as long as by sight. 
However, if a person has never been blessed with it he does 
not feel the loss to such an extent as one who has had vision 
and has later been deprived of it. His loss is partly made 
up by the keenness of his other senses. 

Hearing 

In a parlor were three girls. One was playing the piano, 
the other two were talking. Suddenly a strong breeze came 
in through the open window and knocked over a flower pot. 
A crash was heard. This illustrates the different kinds of 
sound which may strike the ear drum ; the first, that of play- 
ing the piano, is called music, because music may be called 
rhythmical sound which is pleasing in pitch and key; the 
second, speaking, is unrhythmical sound, which may vary in 
pitch and tone. The noise produced by the crashing of the 
flower pot is still another illustration of sound. 

Helen Keller can perceive music by touching her fingers 
to the instrument being played, showing that it is possible to 



114i Studies in Psychology 

receive vibrations tlirough the nerves of the fingers as well 
as through the ear drum. 

Experiments have proved that one may perceive very 
accurately through the ear alone. After a deal of expeii- 
ence, a person accustomed to the sound of a train whistle 
can recognize the sound at a great distance and can estimate 
that distance by the degree of intensity of sound. j 

This power is aided to a great extent by movement. If 
we do not hear distinctly we invariably move into a position 
where we may hear better. Watch a person trying to locate 
a sound. Does he not move his head and body so that he 
may measure the sound in various ways and locate it.'' 

The sense of hearing has a very important place in our 
education and pleasure, and especially in association with 
other people, for it is the first and chief sense used in com- 
municating by means of language. We are thus able to 
converse readily, to listen to lectures, music, etc. We may 
say hearing is the most important sense in the social world, 
for even though one may be blind, if he can hear and speak, 
he may gain a great deal from people with whom he comes in 
contact. A deaf and dumb person does not know what other 
people are talking about, and cannot have the social pleas- 
ure of conversing with them. 

Smell 

One student writes : " In passing through the corridor 
of the normal school, I often inhaled agreeable odors of food 
being cooked. It was not, however, until I approached 
nearer to the kitchen of the dormitory that I was able to 
distinguish what it was that was being prepared." 

Smell is the sense by which we perceive odors. Odors are 
classified as being agreeable and disagreeable. It is impos- 
sible to state how many kinds of smell the nose can distin- 



Perception 115 

guish. Odors are results of vapors or gases present in the 
atmosphere. When we open an orange we inhale the gas 
which is given off, and can very easily identify it. 

In some animals, and even people, the sense of smell is 
very acute, while in others it is not so keen. It may be 
highly developed, especially where there is a deficiency in 
other senses. To the animal smelling is believing. Smell, 
to many animals, is like sight to us. 

Odors give information as to the character of food and 
drink, and as to the purity of the air. We recognize a pine- 
apple by its delicious smell even before we taste it, while 
the same sense may warn us that a dangerous gas is escap- 
ing. The first scent of anything seems always the most 
acute. A girl working in a drug store said that at first 
the strong odors gave her a headache. Now she has become 
so accustomed to them that she does not mind their presence. 

Taste 

A piece of sweet chocolate was placed on the tongue of a 
student who held her nostrils so that no air could be admit- 
ted. Do you think she knew what it was she was tasting.'' 
The only impression she got was that of a smooth, sweet 
substance in contact with her tongue. The quality she per- 
ceived by this special sense of taste was that of sweetness. 
But only when she was aided by the sense of smell could she 
perceive that it was chocolate and not peppermint in her 
mouth. So long as the chocolate remained solid, no matter 
how bitter a brand it might be, it would be impossible to 
perceive the taste. After any substance becomes a liquid its 
taste may easily be distinguished. 

The kinds of taste are bitter, sweet, salt and sour. The 
different parts of the tongue respond to different tastes. 
The sides of the tongue ai'e particularly sensitive to sour, 



116 Studies m Psychology 

the tip of the tongue to sweet and to salt, and its base to 
bitter, while the center is generally almost insensitive to 
taste. Some substances, such as saccharine, produce one 
taste in one part of the mouth and a different taste in an- 
other part. All these facts are easy to explain by the theory 
that there are taste cells wliich always respond with a spe- 
cial sensation. Moving the object from one part of the 
mouth to another aids in perceiving the taste. It also re- 
veals the consistency of food as well as the taste of it. By 
moving a piece of apple from one part of the mouth to an- 
other we may feel its crispness. 

Organic Sensations 

To the sensations mentioned so far must be added those 
which come from the internal organs of the body. Hunger, 
thirst, and nausea are sensations received from the stomach. 
From the heart, lungs and other organs come numerous sen- 
sations which play an important part in making up the feel- 
ing tone of our lives. They do not, however, tell us any- 
thing about the world in which we live but only of our own 
physical conditions. 

MENTAL FACTORS IN PERCEPTION 

There are other factors which aid perception, besides the 
sensory and motor factors just discussed. The following 
illustrations will show what these factors are : 

Discrimination 

To tell the difference between sensations and know what 
they mean one must discriminate. It is by discriminating 
that we know which cake is the sweeter, which weight is the 
heavier, which sound is louder or of a higher pitch and which 
tint of a color is the lighter. A man named Weber was one 



Perception 117 

of the first to try to measure this power and he discovered 
some interesting truths about fineness of discrimination. 
The least difference that can be detected between two sensa- 
tions does not correspond to the same absolute amount of 
difference in the stimuli producing the sensations, but to the 
proportional difference between them. For example, if you 
can just tell the difference between a pound weight and one 
an ounce heavier or lighter you cannot tell the difference 
between a sixteen-pound weight and one an ounce heavier or 
lighter but only when the difference is one sixteenth or one 
pound. If you can just discriminate the difference between 
a light of one hundred candle power and one of one hundred 
and one candle power, then a four hundred candle power 
light cannot be distinguished from a four hundred and one, 
but only from a four hundred and four candle power light. 
If a line an eighth of an inch more than an inch can just be 
seen to be longer than one an inch long, then a line eight 
inches long can just be distinguished from one an inch longer 
or shorter. This same truth seems to hold for all kinds of 
discrimination and is known as " Weber's law." According 
to this law, in measuring the fineness of discrimination we 
must consider the relative instead of the absolute difference 
in the stimuli. 

Memorif 

A little child of three, although told repeatedly not to 
touch the hot stove, did so, and burned his fingers. When- 
ever he went near the stove after that he always said, " No 
touch ; burn baby's fingers." He remembered his past ex- 
perience, and was able through this memory to make his 
perception more accurate than it could have been other- 
wise. Without memory our perceptions of any object would 
be limited to the sensation received at that moment. 



118 Studies in Psychology 

Knowledge 

A little girl who had been away visiting returned home 
and said, " Oh, mother, when I saw the electric car, I knew 
what it was right off. No one told me." How did this lit- 
tle child, who had never seen an electric car, recognize it.'' 
Her parents had given her a description of it and with this 
knowledge she was able to recognize it instantly. 

Habit 

One day, a class of normal school students was confronted 
for an instant with a card on which were many of the letters 
found in the word Fitchburg. They were printed in the 
following order: Fitshbusg. Glancing at it quickly, nearly 
all of the pupils called it Fitchburg. How was this to be 
accounted for? Without a doubt every pupil knew that 
those letters did not spell Fitchburg. The only way it can 
be accounted for is that the pupils had often given this name 
to a word which had the same general appearance. Through 
repetition, it had become a habit and this combination of 
letters was perceived as Fitchburg without noticing the 
parts in detail. 

Imagination 

As the girls left the observation class, JNIary Brown and 
her friend became engaged in an interesting conversation. 
*' Oh, Louise, the strangest thing occurred. I received a 
letter from Cousin Edith a week ago. She told me that she 
had purchased a new party dress while in New York. In a 
later letter I asked her to describe it to me, but she refused, 
saying that she would show it to me Avhen I called at her 
house. Immediatel}' I began to imagine its color and style. 
To my surprise when I beheld the dress, I found that my 
imagination hftd eTiabled me to picture it almost exacily." 



Perception 119 

When we are to try to recognize a sight, sound or odor 
we can do so much more readily if we imagine beforehand 
what it is hke. We are more hkely to find a lost article if 
we picture how it looks. Sometimes such images lead us to 
perceive what is expected instead of what is really shown. 

Association 

About an hour after Mary reached home, she decided to 
have ginger bread and whipped cream for supper. She soon 
had the ginger bread in the oven. About fifteen minutes 
later, when she opened the oven door, she found, much to her 
dismay, that her ginger bread had failed to rise. Her 
mother asked her which dish she got the soda out of. Mary 
said, " The blue dish." She was then told that she had 
put in cream of tartar instead of soda. The cream of tar- 
tar and the soda looked alike and Mary could not tell the 
difference. Her mother knew the difference because she 
associated the blue dish with the cream of tartar and the 
white dish Avith the soda. If ]\Iary had associated her ideas 
of the cream of tartar with some definite thing, she would 
have had a correct perception of it and would not have 
spoiled the ginger bread. 

Assimilation, Classification and Identification 

These mental factors are in turn aided by certain proc- 
esses which make our perception even more perfect. One 
of the normal instructors met a girl on the street one day 
and knew her to be a normal student, A few days later he 
met the same girl and recognized her as Miss Smith. The 
first time he classified her, and the second time he identified 
her. 

" Oh, dear, some one has put all of our rubbers in one 
heap. How shall we ever find our own.^ " This was what 



120 Studies in Psychologz/ 

I heard when I went into the cloak room. Eventually, how- 
ever, every one found his own rubbers. How was this done? 
I suppose they all found theirs as I found mine. I had 
certain fixed ideas of how my own rubbers looked. I knew 
that they had low heels, that they had a rolled edge, that they 
were new, and I knew the size. By the process of discrimina- 
tion I finally recognized them. If I picked up a rubber 
which did not belong to me, I knew it was not mine because 
it had high heels or because of some other difference. Thus 
I identified each as mine or not mine in addition to classify- 
ing it as being a rubber. My perception in tliis case was 
aided by the processes of discrimination and assimilation. 

Summary 

The above illustrations and examples show how imperfect 
our perceptions would be if they were not aided by mental 
factors, such as knowledge, imagination, memory, habit, as- 
sociation, classification and discrimination. 

ILLUSIONS 

Some of our classmates were playing tennis. One stood 
waiting to receive the ball. She raised her racket and to the 
amazement of her companions ran forward and then stopped 
in the center of the court, looking surprised. The ball 
she was running for was still in the hand of the girl on the 
other side of the net. She had mistaken a sparrow for the 
ball. " That was an illusion," they told her. She had had 
a false perception, as was evident, and a false perception is 
an illusion. 

If we look up " illusion " in our pocket dictionaries, we 
may find " hallucination " as a synonym, but they are not 
synonymous. Illusions are much more common for every- 
one can recall instances in his own experience. 



Perception 121 

Hallucinations 

A business man who frequently had telephone calls at 
night sprang out of bed one night and shouted, " Hello " 
into the telephone which had not rung, and was surprised 
to hear central asking for a number. His room-mate told 
him that there had been no call. There was no foundation 
for this mistake, as in the case of the bird, hence it was an 
hallucination. Disordered minds frequently experience hal- 
lucinations. Normal minds do so in dreams and occasion- 
ally when awake. 

Causes of Illusions 

A man especially interested in birds took his camera into 
a meadow and awaited the appearance of some birds that 
had just flown into a clump of bushes. Soon a brown object 
flew up from the bushes and as he tried to focus his camera 
on it, he discovered that it was merely a dried leaf. Ex- 
pectation caused this illusion. The man expected to see the 
birds fly from the bushes, and the brown object moving in 
a similar way deceived him. 

One spring, many beautiful flowers were sent to a girl 
suffering from a nervous breakdown. Her windows were 
open, and the gentle breeze caused the flowers to sway to 
and fro. She noticed them and thought that they were faces 
of friends nodding to her. This was due to the disordered 
condition of her mind, proving that physical conditions 
cause illusions. 

A member of our class tried on a pair of glasses which 
were thicker on one side of the lens than the other. She 
then tried to pick a small object quickly from the table, and 
later from the floor. She placed her hand about ten inches 
from the object, and then with another movement succeeded 
in obtaining it. The result was the same when she tried to 



12^ Studies in Psychology 

touch a chalk mark quickly with a piece of chalk; her mark 
would be at one side of the real mark. The longer she tried, 
the nearer she came to the real object. The reason for this 
was that light always travels in a straight line and the un- 
even thickness of the glasses reflected the rays so that the 
objects appeared at one side of their true position. In 
correcting this illusion she reached to one side of where the 
object appeared to be, and when she took off the glasses, 
recency of habit caused her still to make the correction, thus 
reaching the other side of the object. How many times 
have you looked into the edge of a mirror and seen yourself 
with three eyes or two noses? The reason is that you saw 
a reflection in the bevelled edge of the glass, and another in 
the mirror itself. A baby not used to a mirror will reach 
behind it, expecting to find another baby there. Unusual 
external conditions cause these illusions. 

On the first of April a child received a piece of candy. 
Biting through the candy, she found it stuff'ed with cotton. 
Because the appearance was favorable she inferred that the 
candy would taste good. Often, as in this case, false infer- 
ences cause illusions. 

Thus we see that illusions may be caused by expectation, 
habit, physical conditions, external conditions and false in- 
ferences. 

Senses Concerned with Illusions 

A class mate tells me that her small brother once dropped 
a piece of ice down her back, making her think for a few 
seconds that she was burned. The stimulus was so strong 
that an illusion of touch resulted. A girl arriving home 
after a nature walk declared that a pin was pricking her 
arm; a burdock was picked from her sleeve and the pricking 
ceased. 

A story is told of a fraternity boy who awoke one night, 



Perception 123 

and, to his horror, saw what he thought to be his roommate 
hanging from the chandelier. When he turned on the light 
he found only a dress suit. It was an optical illusion that 
made him mistake the suit for his friend. Illusions of this 
kind are very common. 

One windy night one of our class mates sitting in her 
room called out, " Come in." No one had knocked at the 
door but the wind had rattled the window. A boy, whose 
name is Chester, thought his father called him, and answered, 
only to find that his father was telephoning and had said, 
" Yes, sir." These are illusions of hearing. 

A girl was blindfolded and had some hot water and pepper 
put on her tongue. She was asked what it was and 
promptly answered, " Wintergreen." The slight resem- 
blance between the two caused the illusion of taste. 

Did you ever hear any one say, " I smell smoke," and then 
go in search of the fire, when really the odor came from 
something near at hand.'' This is an olfactory illusion, or 
one of smell. Every sense may be the source of illusions. 

SPACE PERCEPTION 

Space perception is the ability to localize objects and 
sounds, to judge size and form, and to estimate distances 
through the aid of the senses and various mental powers. 
All the senses, with the exception of taste, have been found- 
to play some part in space perception, namely: sight, hear- 
ing, touch and smell. 

Sight 

The normal students, knowing the directions from the 
building, are now able to point out and give the directions 
of several places. Wlien these places and their own sur- 
roundings were new to the students, they were not able to 
do this. They have used their power of sight in the per- 



184j Studies in Psychology 

ception of these new objects and their direction. 

A bird is seen and heard many feet away. With the aid 
of facts already stored up in our minds, we are able to per- 
ceive the approximate distance between ourselves and the 
bird. On the other hand, if our perception has been made 
through the sense of hearing alone, we would only have 
known that it was quite a distance away. 

One of the members of the class who lives near an ob- 
servatory says that she can tell whether the people in the 
observatory are children or adults by their size. She knows 
what a child looks like at that distance, and so uses her 
knowledge in her discrimination. The size of objects aids 
in estimating distances and the knowledge of distance aids in 
determining size. 

Therefore sight is the most important sense in space per- 
ception and the most accurate. If we perceive space 
through touch or any of the other senses and are in doubt 
about our conclusions, we generally refer the specific case 
to sight and accept its testimony as our final authority. 

Hearing 

A person was blindfolded and told to point, as nearly as 
possible, to the exact location of a sound. The materials 
used in making the sounds were an empty ink well and a pen- 
cil. It was found that sounds could be located correctly, in 
most cases, when made on either side of the ear, but when 
the sound was directly in front or behind, the subject could 
not judge accurately the position. This may explain why 
people turn their heads to either side, in order to hear better.' 

If we are crossing the street and hear the honk of an 
automobile we can tell from which direction it is coming, 
and by using our sense of sight we confirm what we have 
heard, and act accordingly. Therefore, hearing and sight 



Perception 125 

together give us more accurate perceptions of space and 
save time. 

Touch 

An experiment was tried by touching the skin with a wire 
hairpin. First the points were placed together and then 
gradually separated. The person was unable to tell that 
two places were being touched until the points were quite a 
distance apart. 

Several persons were touched with a pencil point on their 
hands, arms, faces and necks. The places touched could be 
located on the hands most accurately and on the right hand 
better than the left. The places touched on the neck were 
not located accurately. This experiment proves that all 
parts of the skin do not produce the same sensations, or, in 
other words, do not have the same qualities. 

These, as compared with previous experiments, prove that 
we do not perceive so accurately by touch alone as when 
aided by sight. 

Smell 

If a hunter wishes to go very near to a deer he must go 
against the wind. If he should go with the wind, the deer 
would know that he was coming and get out of his way long 
before he could see the hunter. Thus the deer, as do many 
other animals, uses his sense of smell in perceiving the direc- 
tion of dangerous objects. 

The hunter who is out in the forest uses his sense of sight 
and hearing to find out whether there is a deer near him. 
He does not use his sense of smell in order to find the deer. 
Thus the sense of smell in perceiving space relations is used 
more by animals than by people. 

If a person should smell smoke and could not tell by using 
his sense of sight where it was coming from, he would use 



1^6 Studies in Psychology/ 

his sense of smell by turning his head from side to side to 
discover the direction. Smell does not, however, play as 
great a part in space perception as the sense of sight, hear- 
ing, and touch. 

CONDITIONS FAVORING PERCEPTION 

There are times when a person perceives better than at 
others under the same circumstances. When the physical 
condition of an individual is poor, his senses will not be as 
keen as they otherwise would be, for all the senses are affected 
by the general health. These facts are proved by the exam- 
ples given under the following topics : 

Health and Perfectness of Sense Organs 
A teacher used the blackboard for a great deal of her 
work. A little boy who never had his lesson told the teacher 
that he could not see the board. Finally it was discovered 
that he had nearly lost his eyesight, and had not been able 
for some time to see the work. A certain little girl was very 
backward in her lessons, and did not appear to be interested 
in any way. Finally her parents took her to a physician 
and had her examined. The doctor found that she had ade- 
noids. After their removal she was a different child, and 
became one, if not the best, of the scholars in her class. 

One student says : " After opening a bottle of medicine I 
smelled of it, as I usually do, to find out its ingredients, but 
I was unable to smell anything because of a bad cold." 

Intensity/ of Stimuhis 
When the skin becomes extremely cold a warm object 
placed on it will give a burning sensation. A continued low 
temperature numbs the skin, and pressure upon it at that 
time cannot be felt. A cold object feels larger than a 
hot object, even though the two be equal in size. Thus the 



Perception 127 

.sense of touch is affected by the temperature. 

The greater the intensity of the stimulus the greater the 
sensation. When a person enters a greenhouse there are 
usually several fragrant odors, but there is one which pre- 
A^ails over all others, that of the carnation. A strong, fra- 
grant or pungent odor is more quickly perceived than a faint 
odor, and more readily recognized. 

One day as I stood on the street waiting for a car, a girl 
asked me if I saw those two normal students pass by dressed 
in blue suits. I replied, " No." Then she said, " Did you 
see that girl go by with that exceedingly bright dress on.'' " 
*' Yes," was my reply. I began to question myself as to 
the reason that I did not notice the girls dressed in blue. 
I found that the sense of sight was greatly affected by the 
intensity of the stimulus. An exceedingly bright object will 
attract the attention much sooner than a dull object. 

Repetition and Frequency 

Repetition affects the sense of taste. When food is first 
taken into the mouth, the sense of taste is very keen, but 
constant repetition dulls it. Frequency of the stimulus tires 
the nerve endings to such an extent that the sensations are 
less easily felt. 

Frequency also affects the sense of sight, sometimes mak- 
ing the person more accurate in the use of that organ. In 
looking at a picture for the first time we see only the general 
outline, but on seeing it again we notice the details, and so 
on until the very minute points of the picture are recognized. 
On the other hand, very familiar surroundings are observed 
in less detail than new ones. 

Attention 
Sensations that would ordinarily not be noticed may be- 



128 Studies in Psychology 

come very clear through giving attention to them. In fact, 
of the many stimulations of the sense organs, we are aware 
of but few because we do not attend to them. This is im- 
pressed on one when he tries to hear every sound or notices 
the skin sensations in different parts of the body. 

A tmospheric Conditions 

On a day when the air is very heavy children are very rest- 
less and difficult to control, while on a pleasant day they 
are usually more quiet. Therefore atmospheric conditions 
affect pupils and teachers. 

DEVELOPMENT OF PERCEPTION 

Perception plays such an important part in the life of 
every individual that it should be developed to its fullest 
extent. 

The difference between a child and a man as to their abil- 
ity to perceive lies in the fact that a child is just beginning 
to develop his powers of perception, while the man, by asso- 
ciation and experience, has developed his powers to a greater 
extent, so that he is able to adapt himself to his surround- 
ings. 

A child was given a block to play with. He looked at it, 
pounded it, tasted it, and brought every sense into action 
until he knew it. If the block had been placed in a different 
position he would have still recognized It as the same block, 
although its appearance changed with position. 

Harry, one and one-half years of age, was given a small 
cart at Christmas time. He had never seen a cart before, 
but now he had one of his own. The boy's father was very 
much interested In psychology and noticed the development 
of the child's perception. By observation the child had 
formed a general image of the cart, by touch he perceived 



Perception 129 

that it was hard and by drawing it across the floor he noticed 
that it made a noise. Thus through the senses the various 
characteristics of the cart were perceived. Soon after the 
child saw one of his little friends pulling a toy. He called 
it a cart because it looked like his and was used in the same 
way. Later the boy learned that there are many types of 
vehicles classed as carts. By discrimination he was able to 
distinguish the individual from the class. 

Richard, a very small child, was given a kitten to play 
with. He became very fond of the pet. One day when play- 
ing out of doors, he saw a caterpillar crawling along the 
walk. He ran into the house and said to his mother : " See 
the pretty kitten I found out there on the walk." He had 
placed both objects in the same class because he noticed the 
fur on each and thought they looked alike. After his mother 
explained the differences between the two objects he was 
able to distinguish the class of caterpillars from the class 
of kittens, although he might not know the particular species 
of kitten or caterpillar. 

A boy had just entered school. He knew many words 
but had not leanied to read. He learned words by rote 
and later was able to recognize them by sight. Soon he 
was able to think out words for himself because he found 
some familiar characteristic in the new ones. For example, 
the boy knew the word " rat " and was able to make out the 
word " mat." By assimilation he recognized the sound 
" at " in both words. By discrimination he noticed that the 
first letters were not alike and as he knew the sound of " m " 
he was able to make out the new word. 

A man entered a store, tasted some coffee, and immediately 
stated the grade to which it belonged. Many years before, 
his perception of coffee would have been that of an ordinary 
person, merely its pleasing taste. By observation and prac- 



130 Studies in Psychology 

tice he was able to associate various tastes with particular 
grades of coffee. Special training along that line had made 
his perceptions keen and accurate. 

The children in a certain class were drawing and coloring 
pictures of toys wliich were to be placed on a calendar to be 
taken home. The children noticed the size, shape and color 
of the toys and were very careful with their work, because 
they were doing it for a special purpose. Sense discrimina- 
tion may be improved if it is employed in gaining some spe- 
cific end or purpose. Summarizing, the important aids to 
the development of perception are these: assimilation, dis- 
crimination, association, special training and study, and spe- 
cific purpose. 

APPERCEPTION 

We have found that only very young children have pure 
sensations. These sensations develop perceptions and ideas 
in the mind. \Vlien the number becomes great enough the 
child begins to classify them, and thereafter each new sensa- 
tion and idea is classified and connected with something pre- 
viously known. 

For example, a child has seen a great many square tables. 
When he sees a round table he groups the new perception 
with the old and knows that this new object is also a table. 
This grouping of old ideas with new is called apperception. 

The relation of the words perception and apperception in 
form suggests their meaning. Apperception is perception 
carried further. Perception and apperception are so closely 
related that it is difficult to tell where one stops and the 
other begins. The main diflPerence is that in perception the 
senses are always used. In apperception the mind is active 
and by means of attention groups the new perceptions with 
the old ideas so as to form new ones. 

If one hand is placed in hot water and the other in cold 



Perception 131 

and then both are placed in luke warm water, the water feels 
cold to one and warm to the other, respectively. This is 
due to the different previous experience of the two hands. 
The mind acts in a similar way. The same sensation or stim- 
ulus will produce different results in minds that have had 
different experiences and masses of ideas. 

This is well illustrated by an experiment made in a class 
of normal students. Four students were asked to answer 
this question: "What was the result of the contest?" 
The first girl answered, " The Clinton girls won." The sec- 
ond reply was, " The Athletics won the final game." The 
third replied, " The Overland finished with the best score," 
while the fourth girl stated, " Miss B. won the first prize." 
The first girl was captain of the girls' basket ball team. 
The second was a base ball " fan," and referred to the recent 
" World's Series." The third one questioned was an ardent 
automobilist and referred to an endurance test. The fourth 
girl was interested in elocution and referred to the result of 
a recent prize-speaking contest. The word " contest " 
called up different ideas because of different previous expe- 
riences. 

Two men standing on the street corner observed a friend 
boarding a car with a suit case in his hand. " Evidently 
Jones is going on a vacation," remarked the first. " No, I 
think he is going to the wash woman's with his clothes. This 
is Monday, you know," replied the second, evidently judging 
from his own custom. 

What one perceives and apperceives depends, therefore, on 
his nature and stock of ideas, or, in other words, his char- 
acter, habits, memory, education, previous experience and 
mood. 

Apperception, or association of ideas, is of great impor- 
tance in teaching. It is back of the familiar recommenda- 



132 Studies m Psychology 

tion, " proceed from the known to the unknown." A good 
teacher always considers previous experience and the present 
state of the pupil's mind when preparing a new lesson. 
Sometimes a teacher first asks a great many simple questions 
which every member of the class is able to answer. This 
seems a waste of time, but is really necessary to secure the 
proper state of mind for the new material. Good teaching 
consists in fitting the stimuli to the child's knowledge for the 
purpose of adding to it. We must not only start with the 
known, but also proceed to the unknown as well. To simply 
elaborate the review is a violation of the laws of appercep- 
tion that is no less an error than to give facts that cannot 
be understood. 



VII 
FEELING 

NATURE AND USES OF FEELING 

WHAT sort of a world would we inhabit if we had no 
power or sense of feeling? We might gaze at a glo- 
rious sunset without being moved; we could see our very 
dearest friends leaving us forever without the least touch of 
sentiment. We should be merely creatures of clay, without 
being at all affected by the wonderful panorama of life about 
us. 

Mental phenomena may be classed under three divisions : 
feeling, intellect, and will. Feeling is aroused in a jockey 
who is about to enter a horse race. He is thinking of win- 
ning the race and the honor to be gained. Intellect plays 
the most important part in the work of the scientist. The 
use of the will may be shown in the case of the school boy 
who desires to go fishing but who keeps his mind on his work 
and completes his problem. 

The elements of feeling, intellect and will enter into our 
lives most of the time. Sometimes one predominates, some- 
times another. Our intellect may say to us : " You have 
a few minutes of leisure, and you should answer those let- 
ters," but we may dislike to write letters so heartily, that our 
feeling rules our intellect. Then our will power may " step 
in " and suppress our feelings, so that in the end the letters 
are written. 

Feeling, the motive of all action, is a term that is used in 

133 



134 Studies in Psychology 

many different senses. It is made to cover a wide variety 
of mental activity, from the sensations received by the skin 
to the vague intellectual appreciation of truth. We " feel " 
with our fingers and we " feel " that certain things are true, 
although we may be unable to prove them by any formal 
methods. 

According to Professor Dewey, " Feeling is coextensive 
with mental life ; it is its internal aspect." There is feeling 
in every phase of consciousness. 

There are many kinds of feeling, but we divide them into 
two main classes, pleasant and unpleasant. The loss of a 
friend, a toothache, and a torn dress, all cause very different 
feelings ; yet they are all classified as unpleasant. In the 
same way, a beautiful day, a finished task, or a smiling face 
give pleasurable feelings ; yet each is of a different sort. 

Frequently this element of feeling proves stronger than 
knowledge and will combined. Very often we do things be- 
cause of the pleasurable feelings that may ensue, even when 
we have firmly decided not to do them. 

Although it may seem that feeling is life and therefore 
the aim of life, it was not thought so by the majority of our 
class. This is well expressed in Longfellow's Psalm of Life. 
He says : 

" Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, 
Is our destined end or way ; 
But to act, that each to-morrow 
Finds us farther than to-day." 

VARIETIES AND CLASSES OF FEELING 

Feelings vary widely. In order to find out something as 
to the varieties of feeling, each member of the class was 
asked to make a list of all the feelings of which he could 



Feelmg 135 

think. One student passed in a list of one hundred four, 
which shows how great the number is. They vary from 
those of a very mild form to those of great intensity. Feel- 
ings also differ with persons. The same object or stimulus 
may produce entirely opposite feelings in different people. 
When we realize the great number of feelings we recognize 
the fact that, in order to talk about them intelligently, there 
is need of classification or arrangement. 

A good classification is as follows : instinctive, organic, 
sensory, and ideational feelings. 

Instinctive feelings are those determined by natural im- 
pulses or propensity. 

Organic or physiological feelings play an important part 
in our lives. Examples of this class of feeling are hunger, 
thirst, nausea, and weakness. These have a certain effect 
on other feelings and emotions. For instance, when not 
feeling well, one does not appreciate a humorous anecdote as 
much as he does when enjoying good health. 

Sensory feelings are those produced through the five 
senses, taste, touch, sight, hearing, and smell, and those re- 
sulting from movement or the kinaesthetic feelings. 

Certain ideas arouse ideational feelings or sentiments ; 
e. g., home, country, duty. 

Another more common classification of feelings, previously 
mentioned, divides them according to the pleasure or pain 
which they give. Under the pleasurable feelings are love, 
courage, sympathy, kindness, satisfaction, joy and pride. 
Among the painful feelings are hunger, thirst, fear, anger, 
hatred, sorrow, embarrassment, and disappointment. 

Feelings may be also classified as primitive or instinctive, 
and developed. Under primitive feelings are the following, 
— fear, anger, jealousy, love, selfishness, and curiosity. 
Under developed feelings may be listed hatred, sympathy, 



136 Studies in Psychology 

pride, patriotism, faith, courage, and responsibility. 

Feelings may also be grouped according to their intensity. 

From these various classifications it is apparent that the 
same feeling hiay be placed under many heads according to 
the way in which it is considered. 

SOUECES OF FEELING 

Feeling may arise from four sources, (1) senses, (2) 
instincts, (3) organic processes, (4) mental activities. 

A sensory feeling is any feeling that is the direct result of 
sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste or motion. Nature's beau- 
tiful phenomena, a moonlight scene, or continuous rolling of 
the ocean's wave upon the beach will give sensory feelings 
that are agreeable. Contrast these with the feeling one ex- 
periences from looking directly at the sun on a summer day, 
or the filing of a saw. Compare the feeling we receive from 
the touch of downy milkweed floss with the one produced by 
a burdock burr, or the smell of burning rubber with the 
perfume of violets. An incident was told in class of a small 
child who was very fond of confectioner's sugar. One day 
she found a bag which, she thought, contained the desired 
sweet, so she helped herself g'enerously. Imagine her sur- 
prise in finding that instead of sugar she was eating soap 
powder. Thus we see that we may experience very agree- 
able and very disagreeable feelings through the senses. 

Instinctive feelings are those which come through per- 
forming certain acts without having had any previous expe- 
rience or knowledge and they are usually involuntary. A 
girl told of her first ride in a Ferris wheel. Wlien she 
reached the greatest height the wheel stopped and her seat 
began to rock perilously; she said she experienced two feel- 
ings, one of fear, the other an impulse to cry out for help. 
Both these feelings were instinctive. 



Feeling 137 

An organic feeling is one arising from the organs. A 
person in poor health or in great deprivation often experi- 
ences feelings which a person in a normal condition cannot 
realize. Arctic explorers have been known to become so 
hungry that they were willing to eat shoe leather. Children 
at the age of their most rapid growth show feelings of su- 
persensitivenes, timidity and fear which do not appear before 
or after this adolescent period, and which are due to the 
organic changes going on at this time. 

From these comparatively simple feelings we proceed to 
those dependent upon the complex mental processes. Mem- 
ory, imagination, knowledge, and association of ideas all 
play their part in determining the character of feelings. 
Memory of the taste of food may cause pleasure or distaste, 
according to experience. Previous to final examinations in 
a school or college the students live in dread. This feeling 
is caused b}^ imagination, knowledge of possible conse- 
quences and asociation of ideas. A young lady in a certain 
school felt very sensitive about going among a particular 
group of girls. She felt that there were some of them who 
had a feeling of enmity toward her. Later she found that 
they all regarded her in the most friendly way. Thus her 
feeling was caused wholly by imagination. One who had 
passed through a great sorrow said afterwards that at first 
she experienced a sense of numbness and as this wore off she 
felt sore in body and mind. 

From the preceding illustrations and facts we may con- 
clude that feeling originates from our senses, instincts, phys- 
ical condition, and mental processes. 

THE SENSES AS SOURCES OF FEELING 

The senses are very important sources of feeling. If it 
were not for our senses, we should have no feeling concern- 



138 Studies in Psychology 

ing the things around us. 

Some senses produce much more feeling than others. One 
person may obtain very intense feeling from a sense which 
would give another person very slight feeling. 

The senses vary as to prominence in producing feeling, 
compared with their usefulness in giving knowledge, in the 
amount and in the intensity of feeling given. The final re- 
sults of a test taken in class are as follows : — 

In order of prominence in feeling as compared with knowl- 
edge gaining, the senses rank as follows : taste, smell, motion,, 
touch, hearing, sight ; in order of intensity of feeling expe- 
rienced, touch, taste, smell, hearing, sight, motion ; and in 
the order of total amount of feeling produced, sight, hearing, 
touch, taste, smell, motion. Here sight and hearing rank 
higher, because those senses are used so much more fre- 
quently than the others. We are seeing and hearing things 
nearly all the time, while, generally speaking, we eat and 
taste only three times a day. 

The subject of sensory feeling is so broad and plays such 
an important part in our lives that it cannot be taken up as 
a whole, but must be treated under separate topics. 

Sight 

The sense of sight, without aid from the other senses, gives 
us two elementary sensations, light and color. The effect 
of sun shining on glass or tin is disagreeable, whereas the 
light shining through the leaves of a tree produces a very 
pleasant feeling. 

Sight is very important as regards both knowledge and 
feeling. In looking at a painting of a battle, a feeling of 
horror of war and of admiration for the noble men who 
fought for their country may come into our hearts. This is 
caused by the ideas that enter our minds, while the feeling 



Feeling 139 

produced by the sense of sight alone is that derived from the 
color and lines of the masterpiece. One experiences a pleas- 
urable feeling when looking at a rainbow or a sunset, even 
when ideas associated with pleasure are not aroused. 

Hearing 

Sound, as a producer of feeling, is not as prominent as 
some of the other stimuli, but as a knowledge giving organ 
the ear ranks second. Both pleasure and pain may be de- 
rived from the sense of hearing. A piece of music, beauti- 
fully rendered, may move one to tears or give a pleasurable 
feeling of peace and restfulness ; while, on the other hand, 
the sound of a loud, shrill whistle may cause a person to 
have a feeling of irritation. Of course in the case of music 
the feeling aroused is not wholly sensory but a large propor- 
tion of the sounds that we hear are in themselves at least 
slightly agreeable or disagreeable. 

Toiich 

Touch, as a producer of feeling, may be effective through 
either of the four cutaneous sensations, pressure, warmth, 
cold and pain. It produces more feeling than knowledge. 
As connected with knowledge, it is often used for determin- 
ing the texture of materials. Through the sense of touch, 
we have the most primitive feelings of pleasure or pain. If 
the skin is touched with something sharp, the feeling is 
painful ; while touching surfaces having the qualities of 
smoothness and softness, as velvet, gives pleasure. 

Temperature, in connection with touch, is an important 
producer of feeling, especially when there is contrast, as 
when a person puts his hand in ice water and then in warm 
water. In such a case the latter may seem almost painfully 
hot when the temperature is really only moderate. 



14?0 Studies in Psychology 

Taste 

Taste is probably used more than any other sense to get 
feeling. To a large extent people eat only those things 
that give the pleasantest taste sensations. Taste gives very 
little knowledge. Cooks, druggists and chemists are the 
principal ones who use this sense for the purpose of gaining 
information. A student once attended a " Sense Party." — 
Many different kinds of spices and flavored articles were 
passed around to the guests, and each one was asked to taste 
them without looking at them. The result was that very 
few named the articles correctly. 

Many experiments prove that by covering the nose, so 
that the olfactory sense cannot be used, many substances 
which are usually said to have a very decided taste, seem 
practically tasteless. 

Smell 

The sense of smell may give rise either to pleasure or dis- 
comfort. Although an odor may be unpleasant to one per- 
son it cannot be always classed as disagreeable, because the 
element of experience here, as in other cases, may greatly 
modify the feeling for each person. An odor very unpleas- 
ant to one may be liked b^^ another. 

As regards intensity, we may enjoy the odor of certain 
things at a distance, but when brought very near we may 
positively dislike it. For instance, a person in passing a 
doctor's office used to enjoy the smell of ether, but when the 
same person was obliged to take ether the feeling was very 
disagreeable. 

Smell and taste are very closely connected, since a cold in 
the head will make both less acute, though in reality it is smell 
that is chiefly affected and we lose in power to perceive odors 
rather than in taste proper. The pleasure which we obtain 



Feeling 141 

from the sense of smell makes life more vivid and interesting. 
A lovely rose is beautiful to look upon, but it appears even 
more beautiful if we get its fragrance. 

Motion 

Motion gives a feeling of pleasure or the opposite accord- 
ing to its character, free rhythmic motion generally being 
agreeable. Motion also is a means by wliich our feelings 
are manifested outwardly and are often thus increased. 

It pei-mits our other senses to become greater sources of 
feeling, not only because we are able to move from one place 
to another and receive impressions which could not be en- 
joyed in any one place, but because each sense is made more 
effective by motion. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL, PROCESSES OR ORGANIC SENSATIONS 

The organs of the body and the physiological processes 
are sources of very strong feeling. From them we experi- 
ence such feelings as hunger, thirst, nausea, fatigue, etc. 

The following is an example given by one of the class, 
showing the intensity of an organic sensation, namely, thirst. 
" I had been picking berries nearly four hours. After the 
first hour had passed, I began to feel thirsty. My throat 
was parched and my head ached. On reaching home, I 
drank several glasses of water. For a few minutes I felt 
better, but soon my head ached again. I seemed more tired 
than before and discovered that my thirst had not been 
quenched. After taking a little water at a time and resting, 
I soon felt better." 

Hunger is sometimes as intense as thirst. It is much 
more difficult to work when one is hungry than when one 
is thirsty. This example was given : " One afternoon, 
shortly after school closed, I was so hungry that it seemed 
as if I could not endure it. It affected my disposition also, 



142 Studies in Psychology 

for I was so cross that every one noticed it. Upon obtain- 
ing food, I felt better and my attitude was immediately 
changed." 

The " tired feeling " is one of the most disagreeable. We 
may feel stupid, completely exhausted, and oftentimes a ter- 
rible drowsiness comes over us. It seems as though we must 
rest before attempting to accomplish anything worth while. 
One girl writes, " Some nights when I retire I feel very tired 
and sick, but after taking a good rest I am all right and feel 
ready to work once more." Another girl says, " I felt dull 
and dreary, although I experienced no pain. Everything I 
attempted seemed to go wrong. I found this was due to 
being over-tired. On the other hand, when rested I have felt 
so lively that everything seemed to please me. I could over- 
look all errors and find life full of pleasure." 

It is usually conceded that physiological processes affect 
one's general attitude toward life. When one's system is in 
good condition, happiness and optimism usually prevail. On 
the other hand, if one is ill, unhappiness and pessimism may 
result. For example, " Once, when ill with a nervous break- 
down, I did not want to see any one, even my dearest friend. 
All I wished to do was to sleep. Food did not appeal to me. 
But, when convalescent, I could not have friends enough 
about me." 

Mood is dependent not only on our sensations and 
thoughts for its quality, but on physiological processes. 
When our mood is sombre and dark, all the world looks 
gloomy, and then again, if our mood is bright and gay, the 
world seems vibrant with joy. 

Thus our feelings modify our temperaments and it is for 
us to so live that those feelings shall be developed which 
tend to give us a happy disposition and a bright outlook on 
life. 



Feeling 143 

INSTINCTIVE FEELING 

Instinct is native tendency, which causes us to act in cer- 
tain ways involuntarily, without a definite end in view. 

We find instinct to be a very important source of feeling. 
Why is it that we feel angry when insulted, sad when we see 
a friend suffering, or afraid when danger threatens us ? We 
do not take time to reason and decide in each case what our 
feeling shall be. It is instinct which causes these emotions. 

Some of the most important instincts common to us all 
are, — fear, anger, pity, self-protection, curiosity, love, hate, 
etc. 

The feeling most frequently aroused is fear, which causes 
us to avoid danger. Many of us have feelings of fear al- 
though our intellects tell us that under the circumstances 
there is no real reason for being afraid. One member of the 
class states that the sight of a mouse always arouses fear, 
yet she knows that it cannot harm her. The fact that 
children are afraid in the dark is largely due to instinct, 
although ideas have much to do with that particular feeling. 
A child sent out after dark may see in some familiar tree op 
stone wall, ghosts, goblins, witches, bears, lions or other 
such apparitions. For this reason, we should not tell chil- 
dren stories of wild animals and goblins unless we make 
them understand the exact facts. In many cases these fool- 
ish fears last throughout a life time, while in other cases 
they are overcome. Some of the physiological accompani- 
ments of the instinct of fear are trembling, turning pale, 
screaming, becoming faint, and so forth. 

Self-protection is one of the first laws of nature. For 
example, a very small boy liked to play with a cat. This 
cat often hid under the lounge and when the little boy tried 
to drive her out she scratched his face. He solved the diffi- 
culty, however, by going under the lounge feet first. It 



14»4i Studies m Psychology 

was instinct that made him feel that he must protect himself 
and with his reasoning powers he decided how to do it. 

Curiosity is one of the most common instincts. To a cer- 
tain extent it is valuable, because in many cases it results 
in our gaining knowledge. For instance, the class was 
shown a figure called " deral," which was new to all the 
members. Their curiosity concerning it Avas aroused, and, 
as a result, they consulted the dictionary for a definition 
of the figure and also asked other instructors their ideas 
concerning it. Curiosity may be useful if properly directed, 
but it may be harmful as well. One girl writes, " One day 
my brother brought a little box into tlie house and told me 
not to open it. After he had gone away, my curiosit}^ got 
the better of me and I opened the box. A bee flew out and 
stung me." 

Anger is another instinctive feeling. Some people are 
able to control their anger and after a lapse of time it passes 
away ; but many people fly into a violent passion, often saj'^- 
ing and doing things they are very sorry for afterward. ' 
The feeling of anger disappears more quickly than in the 
preceding case. Some of the physiological accompani- 
ments of anger are frowning, clenching of fists, turning red 
or pale, screaming or keeping very still. 

Since instinct plays so important a part in our feelings 
and actions, we should try to suppress those instincts which 
are injurious and cultivate those which benefit us. 

IDEAS AS A SOUKCE OF FEELING 

Feelings which depend for their origin upon a mental state 
are called ideational feelings because they are based upon 
ideas. In many cases the longer we dwell upon an idea, the 
deeper is the feeling aroused. If something occurs that an- 
gers a person, the more he thinks about it, the more intense 



Feeling 14j5 

the feeling is likely to become. 

The intensity of feeling caused through memory depends 
upon the recency and the association of ideas. For exam- 
ple, the word " fire " brings to the mind the idea of confu- 
sion. That in turn suggests a running crowd, firemen, and 
so on through a long series. 

There is a law that says, " Recalled feelings are pleasant 
or unpleasant, corresponding to the feeling given by the 
actual experience." For instance, we may have had a very 
pleasant vacation during the summer and then we may enjoy 
it again later in memory. On the other hand, the recall of 
the feelings we experienced while the dentist was drilling 
our teeth may be very unpleasant. 

Imaginative ideas likewise produce a great amount of 
feeling and its intensity depends upon the clearness of the 
images. For instance one may imagine what he would do 
if he had plenty of money and thus enjoy the pleasures of 
wealth while still poor. We often imagine conditions which 
would contribute to our happiness and this is often called 
" day-dreaming." 

There is an old saying, " Anticipation is better than real- 
ization." Thus it seems that our imaginary enjoyment of 
an event to come may be strong enough to produce more 
pleasurable feelings than the event itself. A certain small 
girl was to go to a circus. She spent the day before in 
talking about it, how the animals would look, what she would 
have to eat, what the clown would say and what dress she 
should wear. Her eyes sparkled, showing the very excited 
and pleasurable feelings she experienced. The last thing 
she said at night was, " Now I'm going to think some more 
about the circus." 

At the circus the next day she experienced pleasurable 
feelings but not with the same intensity, as was shown by 



146 Studies in Psychology 

her remark, " It's more fun to think of circuses." 

Sometimes our ideas give us feelings that are far from 
pleasurable. The following experience is told : " I was to 
sing at an entertainment and my song was the last number 
on the program. All through the evening I sat and imag- 
ined how I should feel when I stood upon the platform. As 
a result a feeling of dread, of terror and of nervousness 
came over me. I also thought of how I should feel if I won 
the prize, and I would half smile and have a happy and 
proud feeling. Then the thought would come to me, ' What 
if I should fail utterly? ' Following such thoughts my spir- 
its fell and I was miserable." 

We also use our imagination in reading or in descriptions. 
For example, if one is reading a book which contains no pic- 
tures, one will imagine how the characters and scenes look. 
Different people will image the same scenes and characters 
in entirely different ways. The reader who has the most 
vivid imagination will have the strongest feelings aroused. 

Feeling also arises in our thought processes. Nearly 
every one has experienced pleasure when a difficult problem 
has been solved, but on the other hand failure causes a feel- 
ing of unpleasantness. 

As regards abstract ideas, duty, for instance, gives us a 
feeling of responsibility and obligation ; religion, a feeling 
of awe, reverence and respect ; patriotism, a feeling of love, 
pride of country and ambition. 

CONTROL OF FEELING 

The control of feeling is important because it not only 
influences the life of the individual, but of those around him 
as well. The four different kinds of feeling, instinctive, 
sensory, organic and ideational, can be controlled by means 
of a continued, persistent use of the will power. Their in- 



Feeling 147 

tensity varies according to the amount of control which is 
exercised. There are four ways of temporarily controlling 
feeling: (1) by controlling the muscles, (2) by changing 
conditions or environment, (3) by transferring the attention 
and (4) by changing action. 

A permanent modification of disposition may be accom- 
plished by the continued use of these four ways of control- 
ling feeling. A nurse, who, in spite of a natural feeling of 
pain and revulsion at the sight of suffering, smiles placidly 
and calmly pursues her duties when she feels more like run- 
ning away, serves as a good example illustrating the control 
of feeling. 

Another instance is described as follows — " I was reading 
one afternoon when a girl came in and began to tease me 
until I finally became exasperated. My first impulse was to 
speak sharply to her, but I exerted all my will-power and 
succeeded in remaining silent. Nevertheless, my muscles 
were tense, and I felt just as provoked and even more so 
because I had not let her know my mind. At the same time, 
I felt a little better pleased to think that I had managed to 
control my feeling. Soon she stopped teasing me, but the 
only way I could avoid being angry was to think of some- 
thing else. Then my muscles relaxed, and I began to feel 
more pleasant." 

The control of organic feeling through the control of the 
muscles is well illustrated by the common case of a sick per- 
son, who, in spite of physical ailments, bravely tries to ap- 
pear cheerful and really feels better in consequence. 

The second method of temporarily controlling feeling is 
by change of conditions or environment. The illustration 
of this is given by one student, who writes : " There is a 
young doctor living in my home town. Sometimes practice 
is dull and he is depressed and easily annoyed. Then he 



14*8 Studies m Psychology '> 

leaves his office and seeks his father's law office. After re- 
maining there an hour or so he is much more cheerful upon 
his return." 

A similar illustration regarding sensory feeling might be 
given concerning a person living in a noisy apartment house 
who changed his dwelling to rid himself of the noise and re- 
sulting irritation. 

An illustration showing how organic feeling may be con- 
trolled by change of environment tells of the relief given a 
sick person by being removed from a very much tossed bed 
to a freshly made and clean one. * 

A girl in school gives the following example of control of 
feeling by the method of changing the attention. " My sis- 
ter and I used to compete with each other to see who could / 
take some bitter medicine with the better grace. We were 
so much occupied in not showing our real feelings that we 
oftentimes barely tasted the medicine." 

The following example illustrates how feeling may be 
changed by the method of controlling the muscles. A stu- 
dent says, " One evening just before my turn came to speak 
before a large audience, my heart began to beat very fast, 
my breath to come rapidly and my muscles to grow tense. 
I turned my attention from the audience and tried to breathe 
more regularly. Soon my muscles relaxed, and my heart 
stopped thumping, so that I was no longer frightened." 

A girl gives the following example of control of sensory 
feeling by the method of concentrating attention on some- 
thing else. " I was studying when a record was started on 
the victrola. At first it annoyed me but I put my thoughts 
on my studying and writing to the exclusion of everything 
else, and it soon ceased to trouble me." 

Under control of organic feeling by a change of thought 
or attention one girl gives the following example. " I was 



Feeling 149 

ill with scarlet fever when one day news came that a friend 
of mine had died of typhoid fever. My sufferings went un- 
noticed that day in thought of my friend and my great 
thankfulness of heart for not being any worse than I was." 

The fourth and last method of temporary control of feel- 
ing is acting in a way opposite to that suggested by the 
feeling. The example concerning instinctive feeling tells of 
a young lady who reports that when any one finds fault 
with her unjustly, or tries to get off a joke at her expense, 
she turns the tables and jokes about them good naturedly, 
instead of showing anger as she might easily have done. 
This not only changes the inclination of friends but makes 
her feel pleasanter as well. 

The best way to control feelings by action is to engage 
in acts the opposite of those one feels like performing, e. g., 
act brave when frightened, behave as if attracted by what 
really repels, etc. 

The permanent control of feeling, by a combination of 
the four methods of temporary control, is best illustrated by 
the following anecdote. 

A certain girl here in school was fond of another girl 
who had returned her liking but suddenly ceased to have any- 
thing more to do with her. The former, after definitely as- 
certaining that all her friend's feeling for her was gone, de- 
termined to rid herself of her own affection. She moved to 
another part of the dormitory where she was not likely to 
see her former friend often, occupied herself with other in- 
terests and friendships, and, whenever she came in contact 
with the girl, showed by neither expression nor action that 
conditions had been changed. For months this continued, 
and finally she herself ceased to care. This proves that in 
some cases, if our feelings find no expression, they grow less 
and less until they finally cease altogether. 



150 Studies in Psychology 

I.AWS GOVERNING FEELING 

Just as everything in nature is governed by laws, so is 
feeling. The general truths regarding feeling are as fol- 
lows. — 

(I) Feeling and physiological conditions are correlated. 

The following illustrates : " At one time I crossed a river 
on a cable where a large power-dam was under construction. 
I was not afraid at first, but when almost half way across I 
looked down the hundred feet to the bed of the river and 
became frightened indeed. I had such a feeling of fear that 
I was hardly able to move and when I reached the other side 
I was so weak I could scarcely stand." 

(a) There are two kinds of changes which accompany 
feeling, external and internal. These are illustrated by the 
following examples. 

When one hears bad news, the face loses its animated ex- 
pression and becomes sad and gloomy. 

A woman hears of a robbery which happened at a near-by 
house. She becomes very much excited and her heart beats 
very much faster than under normal conditions. 

(b) External and internal changes usually occur to- 
gether. 

When one becomes very angry, the eyes snap and the 
heart beats faster. 

(c) When suppression of external signs of feeling occurs, 
without change of attention, the activity in the vital organs 
is often increased and hence the feeling is intensified. 

If anything amusing occurs at a place in which one would 
not wish to laugh, the desire is suppressed outwardly, but 
internally the feeling is more intense. 

(d) If our feelings are given free expression, they may 
decrease because the internal organs are relieved of tension. 
This is why the people who show their grief at the loss of a 



Feelmg 151 

dear friend by outward expression are often the ones who 
forget their sorrow soonest. 

II. Change in external conditions produces more intense 
feeling. 

This is the great law of feeling. We students at Normal 
never appreciate our homes until after going to school. 
When vacation comes and we hurry home it seems much 
dearer to us than before. 

If we look at a green curtain for several minutes and then 
turn our eyes to the blue wall paper, the paper looks much 
more brilliant than formerly. 

(a) Contrast implies an extreme change in degree as 
when heat follows cold or the reverse ; sweet, sour ; or sor- 
row, joy, and in each case feeling is greater than when the 
stimuli are separately given. 

There is a natural physiological tendency for an extreme 
activity of any kind to be followed by its opposite. 

With ito change in external conditions crying and laugh- 
ter, exaltation and depression often succeed each other. 

It is because of these two laws that a skillful speaker, by 
changing from pathos to humor, and from the amusing to 
the pathetic, may at will move his audience to laughter and 
to tears. 

(b) The effect is much greater when the change from one 
degree to another is rapid. Daylight coming gradually or 
a room growing cold slowly produces little feeling, while a 
flash of a light or a draft of cold air may be distinctly dis- 
agreeable. 

III. Accurate thought and extreme feeling are rarely 
foimd together but a moderate degree of feeling is favorable 
to intellectual activity. 

One who is very angry, very enthusiastic or very much 
frightened does not use his intellect effectively. On the 



152 Studies in Psychology 

other hand, one whose feelings are not aroused shows little 
intellectual activity in planning to get justice, avoid dan- 
ger, or to realize his ideals. 

IV. Moderate stimuli and activities of all kinds are gen- 
erally more pleasurable than very slight or very excessive 
ones. 

V. Successful activity gives a feeling of pleasure and un- 
successful activity a feeling of dissatisfaction. 

Children are usually fondest of the subjects in which they 
do the best and enjoy every success that is not too easily 
obtained. A reporter once told this story of Paderewski 
during one of his visits to Boston : " I stood in the corri- 
dor of the hotel in which Paderewski had his rooms and 
heard him play one little phrase of music over fifty times. 
I wondered that he spent so much of his valuable time on 
such a fragment of a composition. I asked him why he did 
so, for to my ears he had not changed it the fiftieth time, 
but he replied, ' It would have been impossible for* me to go 
on with my day's work if I had not played that bit to my 
own satisfaction.' " 

VI. A sound, touch, taste or smell may be enjoyed when 
of a moderate degree of intensity and greatly disliked when 
excessive, while a very slight stimulus is also unsatisfactory. 
Moderate physical and mental exertion is much more pleas- 
urable than that which is very slight or excessive. 

VII. The same stimuli and the same acts do not continue 
to produce the same feelings. 

The song that at first delights us may become very weari- 
some if heard day after day and we should tire of any kind 
of food, no matter how delicious we thought it at first, if 
compelled to eat it too frequently. On the other hand, 
things which in the beginning seemed very disagreeable may, 
after a while, give us pleasure. The same holds true of 



Feeling 163 

activities and occupations of various kinds. Frequent repe- 
tition without change usually results in relative indifference 
or lack of feeling regarding that stimulus or activity. On 
the other hand, if there is the right sort of variety in the 
character of the stimulus or activity, feeling may become 
more intense, as when musical enjoyment is increased by 
many hearings of various kinds of music, or love of mathe- 
matics is developed through solving different problems. 

CULTIVATION OF FEELING 

Every day our feelings are being aroused or controlled. 
Their modification is a gradual process effected by such 
daily experience. If the more desirable ones are cultivated 
they become a source of satisfaction and benefit to ourselves 
and others. Happy is the person in whom cheerfulness is 
natural, but double credit is due to him who cultivates this 
feeling. One of two elderly gentlemen is so disabled that 
he cannot walk and is nearly blind. The other suffers from 
rheumatism. Ask the former how he is and he will answer 
you, " I'm first rate ! " Ask the latter and he will say, " I 
never felt meaner." Is it not desirable for the second to 
cultivate the optimistic feeling of the first, so that he, too, 
may be loved by his fellow men, and would not he himself 
find much more in life than he does at present? 

Personally, do jj^ou admire the one who closes the shutters 
and complains about the darkness, or the one who opens them 
wide to let the sunshine fill the room? The feeling of cheer- 
fulness, happiness, or optimism is greatly to be desired. 
This applies more to adults because the feeling of happiness 
is natural to most children. 

By cultivating desirable feelings unpleasant ones are ban- 
ished. Feelings which should be overcome are hate, revenge, 
selfishness, jealousy, conceit, etc. 



154i Studies in Psychology 

Feelings to be cultivated are those of goodwill, sympathy, 
kindness, equality, love, determination, responsibility, satis- 
faction, patriotism, love for music, and all feelings which will 
inspire to high ideals those who nurture them. 

Cultivation of feelings involves a systematic use of vari- 
ous factors in changing the feelings of one's self or of an- 
other person. Association with others, environment, neces- 
sity, imitation, repetition, and variety of stimuli are the im- 
portant factors in the development of feeling. 

The following story was told by a former student: 
" When I first came to normal school I was homesick and 
lonesome. I did not like the studies and began to dislike the 
school. However, I chanced to become acquainted with 
several girls who became my dearest friends. I now look 
back on my life at normal school as a very happy one." 

One should always nurture the feeling of kindness so that 
it may become second nature. 

Equality, the feeling that one person is just as good as 
another but no better, should be taught to children even in 
the lower grades. A child is often unkind to one less for- 
tunate than himself in intellect and finances. 

There was a poor, foolish boy in the school. In the lower 
grades the children laughed at him and made fun of him. 
As they grew older pity took the uppermost place in their 
feelings until finally the pupils not only pitied but loved their 
classmate. This feeling of love was doubtless developed in 
the home of one of the children. He loved the boy and the 
others came to do so. This also shows that feelings may be 
cultivated by imitation. 

Surroundings or environment may tend to cultivate a?s- 
thetic feeling. A student who attends a school or college 
noted for beauty of location as well as for fine educational 
advantages cannot help becoming aesthetically developed. A 



Feeling 155 

young person living in a slum district, debarred from even 
speaking with an educated person, hearing and repeating the 
thoughts of degraded humanity, cannot possibly develop 
the finer tastes and feelings. 

A person who becomes reduced to poverty is likely to de- 
velop crabbed, disagreeable, and unpleasant feelings. If 
the same person could be transferred from his straightened 
circumstances so that he might enjoy some of the comforts 
which wealth can bestow, he might become a valuable social 
unit, inspired by feelings of love and generosity. 

Disagreeable surroundings often mean undesirable feel- 
ings ; agreeable surroundings generally mean feelings of con- 
tentment. Imagine a person working in a factory with all 
its noise and commotion on a hot day in July. In place of 
the factory substitute a comfortable spot on an ivy-covered 
porch. Instead of confusion there is quietness. In such 
contrasting surroundings this truth regarding feeling would 
soon be realized. 

Is it possible to cultivate in children the love of school 
and of studies connected with that institution? The follow- 
ing incident illustrates one of the many possible methods by 
which love of a certain subject may be cultivated: A stu- 
dent in high school taking algebra failed completely the first 
year. This, he said, was due to the fact that the teacher 
did not take any interest in him. Naturally he did not care 
for his teacher and would not ask for help. The subject 
became uninteresting, and the result was a failure. The 
second year the pupil took algebra again, but he was placed 
under another teacher who appealed to him. He loved this 
teacher and was willing to do anything which would merit 
his praise and commendation. The result was that the boy 
studied into the early morning hours, mastered his subject, 
and ever after said that his favorite study was algebra. 



166 Studies in Psychology 

Love of study may be cultivated also by removing obsta- 
cles which prevent children from doing their best. For ex- 
ample, too hot a room or one that is too cold will keep a 
child from entering into the spirit of the work. The phys- 
ical condition of children has much to do with their attitude 
toward school; common conditions which are unfavorable 
are defects of the ear and eye. 

Love for attending school may be cultivated by making 
the work interesting and pleasant. Arouse an interest in 
the pupils by showing them the necessity for studying each 
lesson. For example, in number Avork the children may be 
shown the use of arithmetic in a store or when trading for 
one's self. Geography and history are correlated in the 
lower grades, and it may be showTi that to know one subject 
it is essential to know and understand the other. Take the 
pupils on a trip occasionally (an imaginary one is nearly as 
good as a real one), and let the pupils play that they are 
the heroes and heroines of history and act and speak just 
as these great and honored people have really done. By 
allowing pupils to take part in something which touches real 
life they will be convinced that school is not a grind and that 
books are an aid in doing things. 

Imitation plays an important part in the cultivation of 
feeling, especially in the case of children. By imitating oth- 
ers we imitate their feelings to a greater or less extent. The 
mountain feuds are still carried on. Children are brought 
up like their parents and thus experience and imitate the 
feelings of revenge that their ancestors experienced. 

By repetition tasks may become agreeable. The follow- 
ing example was given by one girl. " I used to dislike sew- 
ing very much, but through the persistent guidance of my 
mother it did not seem as hard and my sewing looked better. 
Now that I have learned to sew there is no disagreeable 



Feeling 157 

feeling connected with it; indeed, I enjoy it." By persistent 
effort feelings of dislike give way to feelings of pleasure. 

Changes in stimuli are necessary in the cultivation of feel- 
ing. The best possible drill for use in the schoolroom, if 
used too frequently, will fail to arouse the feeling of interest 
and result in dislike of the subject. 

SUMMARY 

Life in its truest sense would be impossible without feel- 
ing. It is the motive of all our action and is a phase of all 
consciousness. Often the element of feeling is stronger than 
knowledge and will power combined. However, feeling is not 
usually considered the aim of life. 

Feelings vary widely and because of their great number we 
classify them so that we may talk about them intelligently. 
The classification used most in this pamphlet includes the 
following divisions : instinctive, organic, sensory, and idea- 
tional feelings. 

Feelings may arise from four sources : — Senses, instincts, 
organic processes and mental processes. A sensory feeling 
is any feeling arising from the six senses. Instinctive feel- 
ings are those which accompany acts we perform naturally 
and involuntarily. Organic feelings are those arising from 
the condition of the vital organs and the processes taking 
place therein. Out of simple feelings rise the complex feel- 
ings accompanying mental processes, such as imagination 
and association of ideas. 

The six senses vary as to the amount and intensity of the 
feeling they produce as well as in the extent to which they 
are used for purposes of gaining knowledge. 

Senses which give the most intense feeling, like taste and 
smell, are little used for getting knowledge. 

Physiological processes or organic sensations are sources 



158 Studies m Psychology 

of very strong feelings. Examples of these are : — Thirst, 
hunger, fatigue, etc. Our general health is affected by phys- 
iological processes, as are also to a certain extent our moods 
and dispositions. 

Instinct is hereditary and causes us to act involuntarily 
and without any definite end in view. Some of the most im- 
portant instinctive feelings are : — Love, hate, anger, fear, 
sympathy, self-protection and curiosity. Of these, fear is 
most frequently aroused. 

Ideational feelings are caused from our imagination, mem- 
ory, recollection, and other thought processes. Their inten- 
sity depends upon the recency and kind of associated ideas, 
the clearness of the images and the activity of the thought 
processes. 

The laws of feeling are: — 1. Feeling and physiological 
processes are correlated. 2. Change produces more intense 
feeling. The degree of stimulus affects feeling and a rapid 
change in the former produces an increase in feeling. When 
our minds are active in a moderate degree only, our feelings 
increase and decrease as our mental activity increases and 
decreases. But when our mind is working at its maximum 
capacity, our feelings decrease as the activities of the brain 
increase, unless the mental action is along the line of our feel- 
ings, when they increase also. Successful activity gives a 
feeling of pleasure, and unsuccessful, a feeling of dissatis- 
faction. 

The control of feeling is very important and may tem- 
porarily be accomplished by four means, namely, — control 
of the muscles, change of conditions of environment, change 
of thought and of act. A union of the four methods of tem- 
porarily controlling feeling leads to permanent control. 

It has been found that we may cultivate our feelings by 
imitation, repetition, variety of stimulus, duty or necessity, 



Feeling ^^^ 

associations, and environment. We should strive to culti- 
vate feelings which will benefit us and those with whom we 
come in contact. 



VIII 
A STUDY OF WILL 

IMPORTANCE OF WILL, 

VICTOR HUGO has said, " People do not lack strength ; 
they lack will." Without will a man can never expect 
to rise to a place of power, honor, or respect. Will is the 
center of personalit3\ 

In the seemingly unimportant routine of everyday life our 
will is constantly in use. Upon waking in the morning we 
use it in deciding whether we shall get up or lie a few minutes 
longer, what we shall wear and whether we shall partake of 
certain foods. It determines the degree of attention we give 
to recitations during the day, the amount of effort we put 
into the preparation of our next day's work, and into the 
breaking of undesirable habits, the observance of rules in the 
dormitory, and so on throughout each day. 

A person utterly devoid of will could not even make and 
carry out his own decisions. There is no phase of life's work 
which does not require will power. What we get out of life 
depends upon what we put into it and the latter depends upon 
the use of will. The boy who goes into the race, or the girl 
who does her studying, determmed to succeed, is the one who 
will win. 

The drunkard is a failure in life because he lacks will 

power. Oftentimes he does not will to drink but the craving 

for liquor is so great that his will is not strong enough to 

conquer the desire. 

160 



A Studi/ of WUl 161 

One often hears the expression, " Where there's a will 
there's a way," and this seems to be well illustrated by the 
following example: Among my classmates in high school, 
there were two girls, Ruth and Myrtle, who intended to go to 
college. Myrtle's people were poor and could not afford to 
give her further education. Myrtle, however, was deter- 
mined to go to college and secured a position. She worked 
hard and deprived herself of pleasures for which she longed. 
She realized, however, the importance of a college education 
and worked steadily on. 

Ruth's people were wealthy and could easily afford to send 
her to college, although Ruth cared more for dances, parties, 
and entertainments than she did for study. The result was 
that she failed in her examinations. Ruth tried to study 
during the summer but, just as before, pleasure came first. 
Again she failed to pass the examination and was unable to 
enter the college. On the other hand, Myrtle, who sacrificed 
pleasure for work, reached the goal and proved to be a great 
success in the educational world. 

We see, then, that what people become is determined more 
by their will than by their environment. Without will the 
course of our thoughts, words, actions, even our lives, follows 
the lines of least resistance and we accomplish nothing worth 
while. Whether our lives are worthy or not depends upon 
the amount and kind of control we exercise. Preyer has 
truthfully said, " A man's will shapes his destiny and forms 
his character." 

NATURE OF WILL 

Just what is will? Is it a separate, distinct factor regu- 
lating thought and action, or is it the culmination of all the 
forces operating at any one time in the human organism? 
Good psychologists take opposite stands. We, however, are 
concerned with will only as it is connected with our acts. 



162 Studies in Psychology 

Let us therefore consider will as the function of regulating 
thought and action and proceed to analyze some of our so- 
called willed acts. 

There are many acts which involve will to the extent of 
consciousness before doing, yet they are not complete acts 
of will. For instance, consider the following example: A 
mother saw her child at the extreme edge of a dilapidated 
and abandoned wharf. At once she rushed forward to save 
him from the impending danger. This act did not require 
thought, such as, " Shall I save my child from death.'' " or 
decision, such as, " Yes, for he is a good boy and has his 
father's eyes." The child in danger served as a stimulus, 
and the mother, only conscious of her aim to save her child, 
rushed toward him. Because the mother had an end in view, 
because she was conscious of that end before the action took 
place, will, to the extent of consciousness before doing, was 
involved. 

Now let us consider another example: H. N. had wished 
since childhood to be graduated from Vassar College. As 
she grew older her sole aim in life was to write books, and as 
college seemed necessary for this, her desire developed amaz- 
ingly until she believed that she imist attend college. She 
lived with her father, mother, and young sister in a small 
manufacturing town. Her family could not afford to send 
her, although they were able to assist her in her efforts. 
One day an eccentric maiden lady, a friend of the family 
who had taken a fancy to H. N., offered to adopt and edu- 
cate the girl. College ! All its advantages and fascinations 
danced before her eyes. Could she accept? She must ac- 
cept! Then came a period of serious thought. Should she 
choose adoption and subsequent education, or would she re- 
main a daughter to her own father and mother and truly 
enjoy her education by working for it.^* She weighed the ad- 



A Studif of Will 163 

vantages and disadvantages. Finally she decided upon the 
latter course. 

Here we have the factors which make a complete act of 
will. When H. N. was only a child she had a great desire 
to go to Vassar. As she grew the desire grew with her. By 
the time that she received the offer of adoption, this longing 
had increased immensely until it seemed that it simply could 
not be stifled. One factor in this case, then, was desire. 
H. N. had a motive also in wishing to go to college. She 
aimed to write books and this motive prompted the desire to 
be adopted and receive her education without drudgery on 
her part. Because she had a definite aim, consciousness be- 
fore doing was also involved. After H. N. received the offer 
of adoption, the conflict between the broad and pleasant high- 
way of ease and the steep and rocky path of labor required 
deliberation of the best type. Then the ultimate result of 
the deliberation and conflict was a decision. 

Complete acts of will may be classified according to the 
degree of deliberation involved. That is, by increasing the 
amount of consciousness before doing, we have a higher type 
of deliberative act. The longer the period of consideration 
and the greater the number of ideas involved, the higher is 
the type of volition. 

The question of which dress I shall wear requires little 
thought ; whether I shall prepare my lesson or play off that 
tennis match requires some deliberation ; which coat I shall 
buy requires still more. H. N.'s decision required careful 
weighing of advantages and disadvantages, while a decision 
of guilty or not guilty regarding a man who is being tried for 
murder requires the most deliberation of all. 

Summarizing, we see that complete acts of will involve de- 
sire, motive, conflicting ideas, deliberation, and decision as 
well as consciousness before doing; also that they may b*» 



164 Studies in Psychology/ 

classified according to the degree of deliberation ; that is, the 
greater the consciousness before doing and the greater the 
number of conflicting ideas, the higher the type of volition. 



CONTROL OF MOVEMENT 5 

\ 

Many reflex and instinctive movements accomplish definite 
ends. Every voluntary movement must have a purpose. 
The muscular and nervous mechanism is in part the same, 
whether a motion is voluntary or involuntary. In the case 
of voluntary movements the primary results are usually fore- 
seen, while this is not true of involuntary movements. 

The child comes into the world with reflex and instinctive 
tendencies to special and to general movements. This is 
shown when a light is thrown upon a child's eyes and the 
general movement of contraction follows. 

In spite of the fact that the cliild possesses mechanisms for 
obtaining many ends he does not know how to use them. If 
a bright colored ball is held before a young child the color 
attracts his attention and he reaches for it. He may miss 
it at first but eventually he succeeds in grasping it, learning 
by the trial and success method. 

In many cases a child sees others doing something he wants 
to do, and by observing and imitating them his movements 
become like theirs. For example, a baby girl about a year 
old saw her big cousin pat the dog. As soon as the dog 
came near the baby she put out her hand and touched him. 
After several attempts she succeeded in patting him. 

Conscious knowledge of the exact movements involved in 
acts is of less importance than is usually thought. Psychol- 
ogists agree that there is little or no consciousness in famil- 
iar acts, such as walking and writing, but that we are con- 
scious of many of the details while we are learning the move- 
ments. 



A Study of Will 165 

* In obtaining voluntary control of any part of the body, 
various non-voluntary movements are performed and re- 
peated until they are developed into voluntary acts. These 
movements are at first preceded by response to the stimulus 
of some object. A baby lying on a couch hits her hand 
against the curtain cord, grasps it, shakes it back and forth 
several times, and at last succeeds in pulling it voluntarily. 

The tendency to move one foot forward when the other 
touches the floor results in the act of walking, when these 
reflex elements can be properly combined. Part of the mech- 
anism of walking is in working order at an early age. The 
following example shows that the whole mechanism may be 
developed and its parts connected, without experience, and 
that consciousness often hinders rather than helps. 

A child thirteen months old was sitting in his sister's lap. 
His brother across the room held out the baby's doll invit- 
ingly. He spied it and, quick as a flash, slipped from his sis- 
ter's knees and walked across the room to receive his doll. 
This stimulus resulted in the child's first steps taken alone. 
He could not be induced to walk again for several days even 
when a similar stimulus was offered. 

Thus we see that a child, in the beginning, has the unde- 
veloped mechanisms with which to make voluntary and invol- 
untary movements. Babies and animals learn almost wholly 
by the " trial and success " method, children by imitation, 
and adults, to a large degree, by comprehension. 

THE CONTROL. OF SENSATIONS 

The sensations of the body are of vast importance and are 
an essential part of the human life; hence their control is 
very necessary. 

The chief organs of sense are the eye, ear, nose, tongue, 
and skin. The sensations received from these organs, al- 



166 Studies in Psychology 

though very important to us, are sometimes unpleasant. In 
order to adapt these sensations to fit our needs we learn to 
control them either by physical or by mental means, each of 
us perhaps employing a different method. Some people, es- 
pecially children, exercise very little control over the sense 
organs ; hence their life is made by their environment. 

In infancy the movements which seem to indicate control 
are purely reflex. For instance, if the foot or hand is pain- 
fully or unpleasantly stimulated the infant will withdraw it. 
If a disagreeable object is in his mouth he will push it out 
with his tongue. These movements are not voluntary. 
After about three months he shows some control over the 
sensations he receives by using the sense organs in order to 
receive or avoid sensations. For instance, he turns his head 
directly toward the source of a sound ; he turns his eyes and 
follows a moving object ; or he moves his hands or lips to get 
pleasant sensations. From this time on he acquires more 
control in many ways. He burns his finger on the stove and 
learns by feeling that it hurts. The next time his hand 
comes near the stove he remembers the past experience and 
withdraws his hand instead of touching the dangerous object. 

A child is fond of candy. One day he sees his mother put- 
ting away woolen clothes with something that looks to him 
like candy. He is told that he is mistaken, but in childish 
doubt he takes a piece and tries to eat it. Finding that it 
has a very disagreeable taste, which he has never associated 
with candy, he drops it, thus ridding himself of the unpleas- 
ant sensation. 

The easiest way to control the sensations is by the removal 
of the stimulus. A class in psychology wishes to carry on 
the recitation but is greatly annoyed by another class which 
is talking and laughing outside the door. The noise is so 
great that the door has to be closed before the lesson can 



A Study of Will 167 

continue. As soon as the stimulus is removed, however, the 
recitation goes on. 

We have found from what has preceded that all the senses 
may be controlled in practically the same way. There is one 
method of controlling sensations by physical means which 
cannot be used with equal facility for all of the senses : this 
is control by movement of the sense organ itself. 

The eye can be controlled in this way more easily than the 
other sense organs. For instance, one may avoid seeing a 
person if one so wishes, even if he is in the same room, either 
by closing the eyes or by moving the head so that they will 
be in a different position. At every movement the sensations 
of sight are thus determined by movements of the eyes. 

Hearing is more difficult to control in this manner. If you 
are in a room where a piano is being played you cannot shut 
out the sensation by moving the sense organ. You can, 
however, get the sound more clearly by putting yourself in 
a favorable position or, by covering the ears, you can par- 
tially exclude it. 

In a greater or lesser degree we can shut out or increase 
sensations of smell by slight movements, such as drawing the 
nostrils closer together or expanding them, breathing very 
slowly or very quickly, or turning the head from or toward 
the odor. 

We find that gustatory movements are very useful to us 
in this way : A person had a piece of food in his mouth 
which seemed tasteless. By moving the tongue and pressing 
the food against the roof of his mouth, he gained greater 
sensations of taste and thereby knew what he was eating. 

Tactile sensations are also affected in this manner. If 
you place your hand lightly on the surface of an object you 
cannot tell whether it is smooth or rough, but by rubbing 
back and forth or pressing more firmly on the surface, the 



168 Studies in Psychology 

quality can be easily ascertained. 

The finest touch sensations are received from the most mov- 
able parts of the body. For instance, a girl was lying on 
a couch with her eyes closed. A ball was placed on different 
parts of the body but only a sensation of cold was received. 
As soon as the ball was placed on her fingers she readily dis- 
tinguished what the object was. 

All of the sensations can be controlled to a certain extent 
by mental concentration. In the assembly hall I Avish to lis- 
ten to a lecture but there are several people talking back of 
me. I put myself in an attitude of attention and by special 
effort concentrate my mind on the lecture. I still get the 
auditory sensations from behind me, but to a lesser degree. - 

I am in a room where there is a very disagreeable odor. 
I must remain, however, so I close my nostrils as much as 
possible and give my attention to the person with whom I 
am conversing. By concentrating my mind on the conver- 
sation the intensity of the odor is lessened and in a short 
time I forget about it. 

A girl is bird hunting. She sits down on a rock and soon 
notices a flutter in the branches overhead. At first she 
sees only the form of a bird and cannot distinguish the mark- 
ings. By sitting there and giving all of her attention, how- 
ever, she is able to see enough to classify the bird. 

Thus we see that we can control our sensations in the fol- 
lowing ways : by the removal of the stimulating cause, by 
movement of the sense organ, and by mental concentration. 

CONTROI. OF FEELING 

Control of feeling is the power to restrain our inward emo- 
tions. All emotions deepen by repetition. If one allows 
an undesirable feeling to master him he should be on the 
watch to check that feeling on the occasion of a second mani- 



A Study of Will 169 

festation. The man who falls into a rage, falls Into a rage 
more easily the second time. He who keeps cool, under try- 
ing circumstances, will more easily control himself the next 
time. If a person forms the habit of being pleased with 
small things as well as great, joy may become his dominant 
emotion. Later, he will find it hard to become displeased 
with many occurrences at which another is constantly grum- 
bling. 

Any person can to a certain extent bring about a desired 
emotional change by summoning only those ideas which tend 
to inspire the desired emotions. 

The following example shows one phase of this subject, the 
control of fear. 

One cold winter evening a girl was in her home busily 
studying. The other members of the family were attending 
a concert and the girl had been alone for an hour or two. 
Her lessons finished, she leaned back in her chair with satis- 
faction. Upstairs a shutter banged, a stair in the hall 
creaked, and the girl was seized with an almost overpowering 
fear. It seemed as if she heaixl steps coming nearer and 
nearer, and she felt the impulse to scream. She picked up 
a magazine which lay on the table and read until her parents 
arrived. The fear which had almost overwhelmed her when 
she was alone now seemed groundless. Reading had served 
to turn her attention away from her terror. 

Sadness is a feeling often in need of control. The follow- 
ing example was given by a student : There was once a girl 
who went away from home to attend a school in a distant city. 
After the excitement of arriving and settling, she began to be 
homesick. She braced up, however, and willed not to be 
conquered by her feelings. These she overcame by associat- 
ing with other girls in the school. 

Anger is also a feeling that is difficult to control. An 



170 Studies in Psychology/ 

example is as follows : " One day a certain person said some- 
thing to me which made me very angry. I did not answer 
for I willed not to say anything in return, knowing I would 
be sorry afterward. Knowledge of consequences helped me 
to carry out this act of will." 

The control of laughter is also difficult, as the following 
shows : " Once when I was teaching a class of children I 
asked one of them a question which he answered in a very 
amusing way. The other children laughed and I really felt 
inclined to do so, but I willed not to yield to the impulse. 
My desire to show the children that I was there for business 
and not for play helped me to accomplish this end." 

It is a very helpful though difficult thing to be able to 
control one's feelings. It is, however, essential that every 
teacher be able to control herself before she attempts to 
control others. 

CONTROL. OF MEMORY 

Memory is, and always will be, one of the chief factors 
in education. For that reason we must learn how to control 
it that it may be of the greatest benefit to us. 

One way of controlling memory is by the association of 
ideas. For example, a girl, in trying to recall facts heard 
at a lecture, imagines herself as again listening to the speaker 
and is able to recall the desired facts. Miss R. writes: 
" We have a friend whose name is Mr. Ash. Many times I 
have been unable to recall his name when I wished to use it, 
until I formed the habit of association. My mental process 
is similar to this : ' Coal, cinder, ash. Oh, yes ! Mr. Ash.' " 
Control of memory by association is greatly increased by 
system, by noting similarities and by grouping many ideas 
under few heads. 

One of the most effective methods of controlling memory 
is to appeal to the individual's special interest. A week has 



A Study of WUl 171 

elapsed since F. and A. attended one of Kreisler's musicales. 
F. recalls Kreisler, the man, — his personality above every- 
thing else. On the other hand, A., a true lover of music, 
retains chiefly the memory of his divine melodies. 

Visualization is one of the most common means of fixing 
impressions and hence of controlling memory. Many stu- 
dents memorize selections by means of mental pictures. For 
instance: E. R., when repeating a poem, sees clearly the 
page on which the poem occurs and the arrangement of the 
stanzas. 

Repetition is an important means of making other meth- 
ods effective. Certain students who find it difficult to re- 
member names form the habit of repeating a name several 
times and also saying to themselves, " I will remember this 
name." 

Will or determination is an important factor in the con- 
trol of memory. For instance, Mary writes, " I had been 
carrying the money for my class dues for months, thinking 
each day I must pay them but failing to think of it at the 
right time. Finally my mother said, ' You had better pay 
your dues or you will lose the money.' I made up my mind 
to do so and, determined not to forget my mother's advice, I 
did pay them." 

Since memory determines the contents of our minds we 
need to control it or they may be filled with rubbish or with 
valuable material that we cannot find and use. As we have 
seen, some of the most common ways of controlling memory 
are: association of ideas, interest, visualization, repetition, 
and determination. 

CONTROL, OF MENTAL IMAGES 

One of the best aids to memory is making mental images. 
In order to fonn a mental picture, it is almost always neceis,- 



V72 Studies m Psychology 

sary to exert will power. How dull and uninteresting life 
would be if we did not have control of our memory through 
the aid of mental images ! The advantage of these is shown 
in the following example : If I visit a strange city or town 
for a day, I have a clear mental picture of the station, the 
main street, a few stores which evidently impressed me more 
than others, and the buildings or houses where I may have 
gone. If I am visiting a large city and walk with a friend 
between two places which are a distance apart, I am able, by 
means of mental images formed, to make the return trip 
alone. 

Without control of our mental images, details of an inci- 
dent like the following could not be reproduced. Several 
winters ago a large sawmill near my home was burned. 
The building, which was of wood, and the piles of dry lum- 
ber made a fire long to be remembered. I sat at our bay 
window, watching the flames and sparks shooting upward 
and the men hurrying down the street. I could see very 
plainly as the glare of the flames on the snow made the scene 
as light as day. In the first confusion, men made desperate 
efforts to extinguish the flames with water. Soon, however, 
they realized the futility of this and gathered in excited and 
gesticulating groups. 

How much enjoyment the girl had who writes: "One 
evening last week I wished very much to attend a ball but 
could not do so. I sat down in an easy chair, however, and 
willed myself to picture the ballroom. I could see the danc- 
ers and even some of the dresses which I knew certain girls 
would wear. I could also hear the music, and reall}' found 
pleasure in these images." 

By the aid of images we get much pleasure in reading, 
conversing, and listening. " Just before the Christmas 
vacation, Miss K. read to us The Mansion, by Henry Van 



A Studij of WUl 173 

Dyke. During the reading I had many visual images of the 
people described and the mansions belonging to them, which 
added greatly to my enjoyment of the story." 

The imagination is an important factor in helping people 
to construct and carry out new ideas. Almost every ad- 
vance in the present day world is the result of some person's 
imaginative powers. For example, take some wonderful new 
discovery in the medical world. People say it is the result 
of thought and experimentation, but let us see what is at 
the bottom. Is not this new discovery first the product of 
the imagination? The originator of the process sees far 
enough ahead, by means of mental images, to know the prob- 
able result of his experiment. He strives for certain ends, 
but, between the beginning and the final result, there is a 
large gap which must be bridged through mental pictures of 
each intervening step. 

The inventor, also, makes use of his imagination. He is 
constantly willing a certain kind of image to come before 
his mind's eye. The first image he sees is that of the whole 
machine, then he sees each of the component parts. It is 
his will that directs his thought along the right lines. 

When drawing our maps from memory in geography it is 
necessary to have a correct mental image in order to make 
a correct reproduction. An artist, in painting a portrait, 
must have good control over his mental images in order to 
reproduce the most minute details of his subject. 

The success of a public speaker depends upon his ability 
in getting his audience interested, by giving descriptions and 
relating stories. He must tell what occurred so clearly that 
his audience will be able to picture each scene of which he 
speaks. 

One student writes : " After a heavy northeaster on the 
Maine coast, my brother and I visited a certain island, eight 



174? Studies in Psychology 

miles from the mainland, to see the surf. The sun shone 
gloriously, making the narrow plank walks gleam white, as 
they wound through the bayberry and sweet fern to the 
south shore of the island. We stood on a narrow platform 
over the ocean and even now I can feel the wind on my face 
and taste the salt sj)ray. When we reached the rocky shore, 
many people were scattered about, and even the most rotund 
looked frail and helpless against the mountains of green 
water with snowy crests that pounded on the rocks." 

From the above one may readily see that the most impor- 
tant uses of mental images are as follows : to help us remem- 
ber certain places or definite details, to give pleasure in read- 
ing, conversing, and listening, and to help us to construct 
and carry out new ideas. By controlling our images we 
make our mental life what we wish it to be. 

THE MAKING AND CARRYING OUT OF DECISIONS 

The term will involves the conscious choosing of an idea 
or course of action out of a great number of possible ideas 
or courses, and a steady adherence to the one chosen. Much 
of our conduct is governed by simple habits. It is only in 
new and complex situations that the process of willing be- 
comes distinct. Then we find two sources of difficulty, one 
in ascertaining what to choose, the other in abiding by our 
decision. 

Let us consider the following cases : A young man, the 
son of wealthy parents, had, as a matter of course, entered 
college. He was well established in his freshman year when 
his father's business failed and the family was left in com- 
parative poverty. " I will get my education just the same," 
he thought, " and after I graduate I will retrieve my father's 
business," which he did. Thus we see that ambition may aid 
in the making and carrying out of decisions. 



A Study of Will 175 

In contrast, consider the case of another joung man also 
left in poverty during his college course. He decided to 
sell books during the summer to help cover his expenses. At 
the close of the term, however, he was invited on a 3'achting 
cruise with his chum. He accepted the invitation and lost 
his opportunity for earning the money to cover his expenses 
for the next year. Here we see that desire for pleasure may 
hinder the carrying out of decisions. 

Johnnie, a spoiled child in a rural school in W., was much 
given to throwing paper about the room. One rainy morn- 
ing Avhen he had been very naughty his teacher said, " Now, 
Johnnie, if I see 3'ou throw any more paper this week, I shall 
punish you severely Friday night. Do you understand ? " 
" Yes'm," said Johnnie, meekly. He thought, however, 
" Frida}^ night — she will forget before then." And she did. 

The next week Johnnie began his pranks again. Just as 
the first wad of paper sailed across the room the teacher 
called out, " Johnnie, if yon throw another piece of paper, 
I shall punish you at once." Johnnie slid down in his seat, 
a frightened and submissive boy, deciding then and there to 
be good. His decision was carried out. This example 
shows that if the punishment or reward is to come at once 
our decisions are made and carried out much more easily 
than if it is to come at some future time. 

Mary, a little girl in the sixth grade, was inclined to be 
lazy. One day her teacher scolded her sharply for a failure 
in arithmetic. The next day the work showed no improve- 
ment and Mary seemed very much discouraged. The teacher 
said, " Where there's a will, there's a way." The child did 
not seem to appreciate this and after a time her teacher 
resolved to make another attempt to encourage her. When 
the opportunity came she said, " If at first you don't suc- 
ceed, try, try again." Then Mary resolved to " try, try 



176 Studies in Psychology 

again." In the following weeks her work showed decided 
improvement. This shows that proverbs sometimes aid the 
making and carrying out of decisions. 

We often find opposite influences working one against the 
other. Consider the following: "A boy living in a large 
city had learned the bad habits of smoking, swearing, and 
drinking. He became acquainted with a young man from 
the Y. M. C. A. whose good opinion he valued highly. This 
induced him to decide to give up his bad habits. One after- 
noon his former associates persuaded him to join them in an 
attempt to rob a house that evening. Much persuasion was 
needed but he finally yielded. While on his way to the place 
of meeting he remembered his friend at the Y. M. C. A. and 
the good opinion which he knew he would lose should his law- 
lessness be discovered. Consequently one member of the 
gang was absent that night." In this case persuasion aided 
the making of the decision, but desire for the good opinion 
of another hindered the carrjnng out of that decision and 
aided the formation of a new one. 

The following is another example : " The members of 
a boys' club had just finished reading the poem ' One Niche 
the Highest.' All of them with the exception of one had 
succeeded in carving their initials on a high ledge in the 
neighborhood. This boy, however, accomplished it one Sat- 
urday. The next week he decided to carve his initials still 
higher. After climbing up several feet beyond his first in- 
scription he looked down and was overcome with fear. Sev- 
eral times he attempted to climb higher but was forced to 
yield to his fear and return to the ground. In this example, 
pride aided the making of the decision while fear hindered 
its carrying out. 

Habit has, perhaps, the greatest influence on the making 
and carrying out of decisions. If in childhood we form the 



A Study of Wm 177 

habit of making wise resolves and living up to them we will 
usually continue to do tliis in later life. On the other hand, 
if in the habit-forming period we follow the lines of least 
resistance we will never be able to make and carry out our 
decisions without great effort. It is essential, then, that 
teachers train their children to form good habits. 

Thus we see that there are many things which influence 
the making and carrying out of decisions. We have also 
seen that there may be several opposite influences working 
against each other. Some of the things which influence the 
making and carrying out of resolves are duty, nearness of 
the time of punishment or reward, proverbs, suggestion, feel- 
ings, such as pride and fear, persuasion, the good opinion of 
others, and habit. 

STRENGTH OP WILL 

Strength of will is the important factor in the carrying 
out of decisions. Since will is the power that controls our 
actions, a strong will is one which allows nothing to inter- 
fere with the accomplisliment of a definite end urdess that 
end or course of action is proved unwise. Under the sub- 
ject of strong will may be classed many of the essentials 
which make up the character of a person. We know char- 
acter only by outward action. Since will controls action 
let us consider some of the elements of a strong will. They 
are choice of duty rather than pleasure, and of greater re- 
mote, rather than of small immediate advantages, delibera- 
tion before deciding, being guided by reason in choosing, and 
persistence in carrying out such decisions. 

Examples of the first type are as follows : " A girl whose 
mother is ill is invited to go for an automobile ride. Re- 
solved from childhood to be helpful in her home life, she 
recognizes the fact that there is much for her to do at home. 



178 Studies vn Psychology 

Although the prospects of a ride on so hot a day seem very 
attractive, yet realizing her duty, she remains at home." 

" A man who occupies a high position has very strong 
views about certain questions. As a boy he determined to 
be honest and to lead an open, honorable life. He knows 
that by publishing his views broadcast he will be in danger 
of losing his position. He has a large family to support 
and no permanent income. For the sake of the truth in the 
matter, however, and to satisfy his sense of right he deter- 
mines to publish his ideas. He does so and loses his posi- 
tion. This illustrates the fact that a truly strong will dis- 
regards unpleasant consequences when right is involved." 

The following is given as an example of deliberative choice 
in carrying out a decision : " M. B. had been taught the 
lesson of economy in dress. She had, however, a natural lik- 
ing for pretty clothes and accessories. One day she saw a 
pair of pumps in a shop window and she liked them exceed- 
ingly. It was near the end of the season and the price was 
temptingly reasonable but the question of practicability 
came up, as she had only a limited amount of money to 
spend. Would it be wiser to buy the pumps or to purchase a 
pair of high shoes? She wished the pumps but, after care- 
ful deliberation, bought the high shoes, knowing that they 
would be more serviceable." 

A certain junior has the opportunity to leave normal 
school at the end of the year to teach in a colored school in 
the south. The question for her to decide is whether it would 
be to her advantage to return to normal school and receive 
her diploma or to accept the position which would afford 
her an immediate income. She sees that the former course 
will mean more to her in the end and therefore decides upon 
it. This is an instance of choosing between immediate and 
remote advantage, showing that more strength of will is re- 



A Study of Will 179 

quired to decide upon the latter than the former. 

A person with a weak will is one who cannot carry out his 
decisions, is readily influenced, and easily dicouraged after 
having made a decision. Furthermore, he will be unable to 
surmount as many difficulties as one with a strong will and 
in the end w^ill probably fail to carry out his purpose. 
Being influenced by others to refrain from acting in the way 
one knows to be right gradually weakens the will. 

One night a high school girl had a theme to write. She 
sat down at her desk and had just written the title when a 
girl friend came in and asked her to go to the moving pic- 
tures. She knew that she ought to stay in and write the 
theme but when her friend repeated her invitation she con- 
sented to go. She knows and desires to do ^hat is right. 
Being influenced to give in on one occasion, however, she will, 
no doubt, act in a similar way a second time. 

The following example shows how a person with a weak will 
acts upon the desire of another: Grace and Alice are talk- 
ing together and Grace expresses a desire to go to the park 
for the afternoon. Alice does not feel that she can afford 
the time but is easily persuaded by her friend to go. Alice 
is undecided what to wear until she questions Grace and fol- 
lows her advice. Grace asks, " What time shall we start? " 
but Alice has no suggestions to offer. Grace, therefore, is 
obliged to take all the responsibility. Alice is a typical ex- 
ample of the weak-willed girl who does not rely upon herself 
at all. 

There is still one more type of will to be discussed and that 
is obstinacy. An obstinate person is one who is stubborn, 
headstrong, unyielding to reason, arguments, or persuasion. 
The old saying, " There are none so blind as those who will 
not see," is very true, for an obstinate person refuses to 
listen to reason or to see things from any point of view but 



180 Studies m Psychology 

his own. The following is an example of this : There is a 
man in a certain town who decided to go to San Francisco 
solely on a pleasure trip. Many things totally unforeseen 
when he made his decision have come up that would keep 
the ordinary person at home. His daughter suffered a long 
illness and the condition of his business was anything but 
satisfactory. Duty to his family and unceasing endeavor 
to better his business condition did not appeal to this man. 
Having made his decision, he determined to carry it out re- 
gardless of the circumstances. On the other hand, a man of 
strong will would postpone his pleasure trip and carry out 
his deep-rooted ideal of unselfish devotion to his family. 
This shows that obstinacy and strong will are not the same 
but two distinct qualities. 

We may repeat, then, that the essential elements of a 
strong will are, choice of duty rather than pleasure and of 
greater remote rather than lesser present advantages, de- 
liberation in choice, disregard for unpleasant consequences 
and persistency in reasonable action. • 

FREEDOM OF WILL 

Freedom of will is sho^vn in judging in accordance with 
reason and so as to realize to the greatest extent one's de- 
sires. All men are created with the possibility of a free will. 
Because a free will is an achievement and not a gift, each 
man's will develops differently, either growing more free or 
becoming more susceptible to outside influences. 

One of the students wrote : " One evening I attended a 
lecture on ' Europe and the War of Today.' The audience 
was composed of people of different nationalities, all of whom 
seemed vitally interested in the subject. Many gave outward 
signs, showing their sympathy with one side or the other. 
I tried to live up to my ideal of justice by not sympathizing 



A Study of Will 181 

with either side until I had heard both views on the subject. 
Consequently I was more free in forming my opinion than 
those who had been influenced by their emotions." In this 
case adherence to ideals promoted freedom of will. 

Luther Burbank has greater freedom of will in the plant 
world than any other person because he thoroughly under- 
stands plants and knows how to deal with them. A man who 
wished a row of rapidly growing shade trees purchased the 
variety which he, with his smaller amount of knowledge, con- 
sidered best. He carefully followed the directions which 
came with the trees and was obliged to wait the usual number 
of 3^ears for them to grow. On the other hand, it is said 
that Luther Burbank, by using his knowledge of trees, grew 
a chestnut tree in half of the usual time required for growth. 
From this we see that the person who has the broadest knowl- 
edge of how to obtain desired results is the person who has 
the freest will. 

The question may be asked which person is more free, the 
person who has one aim in life or the person who has a great 
many. For example, Helen and Alice were very fond of 
music and both of them had considerable ability along that 
line. Helen, however, studied music but a short time. Then 
she took up physical culture and later she studied domestic 
science. In the meantime Alice was diligently studying 
music. Three years later the position of music instructor 
in a certain city was vacant. Both of the girls applied for 
it but Alice received the position because Helen was " Jack 
of all trades and master of none." Alice realized her desire 
and became proficient in music, while Helen, her interest di- 
vided by many different aims, did not realize any one of them. 

We see, therefore, that a broad aim or group of consistent 
aims helps to form a free will, while aims along different lines 
and those which are opposed to each other hinder freedom 



182 Studies m Psychology 

in willing. Other things which help to develop a free will 
are adherence to ideals, a non-prejudiced condition of mind 
and broad knowledge. 

TRAINING THE WILL. 

As we have seen, the ideal will is that power which directs 
us into right lines of action and holds us to our best in the 
accomplishment of some dominant purpose. Training the 
will is training the man. How this is best done we shall con- 
sider briefly. 

First, there is obedience to parents and superiors. There 
are two courses usually pursued, one as harmful as the other 
when carried to extremes. The one demands a formal, un- 
hesitating obedience : the other requires no obedience, but al- 
lows the child to be governed by his own caprices and humor. 

With children under twelve years of age, if one or the 
other method is used exclusively, the former is the better; 
first, because the child brought up without the idea of obedi- 
ence is unfortunate, and second, because there are certain 
great laws which must be obeyed. Most children, however, 
when rightly trained, can be made obedient without force. 
Allow them to choose whenever possible. There are many 
devices which will aid in leading a child to do the right thing 
voluntarily. Give him a choice, such as, " You may pick up 
your toys or go without them to-morrow." Here a certain 
amount of freedom is given and a certain amount of obedi- 
ence exacted. 

Another device is having a regular time for the perfoi-m- 
ance of duties and for play. The child who knows that lie 
must go to bed at eight o'clock is not apt to demur when the 
time comes. On tbe other hand, the child who is sent to bed 
at seven one night and eight the next is very apt to feel that 
bedtime is a whim on the mother's part. 



A Study of WUl 183 

As the child grows older and passes the period when im- 
pulses are so strong and rationality so feeble, he should be 
given more freedom in choosing and making decisions, for the 
will does not begin to grow until definite choice is made. 
Power to choose the right comes more easily to him who has 
chosen the right many times. 

Consider the case of a teacher who was asked by a little 
boy of six and another of fourteen, on a cold winter day, if 
they might go tobogganing. To the younger child she said 
" No," but explained why she could not allow him to go. To 
the older boy she gave the right to choose, after warning 
him of the extreme cold. He chose to go and returned with 
both ears frozen. The next day, when a similar choice was 
offered him, he knew which course was the wiser for him to 
pursue. 

Another example, showing the value of decisions, is as 
follows : Two fathers were confronted by the problem of 
their sons keeping late hours. The first father made a rule 
that his son should be in at nine o'clock. The son's instinct 
of freedom rebelled at this, and he very soon began to prac- 
tice various deceits which resulted in liis leaving home. 

The other father, after talking the matter over with his 
son, decided that the boy should have a key of his own and 
keep his own hours. After a few nights of late hours and 
loss of sleep, he began to realize his physical fatigue and 
mental strain, and, feeling free to do as he liked, he chose 
to keep earlier hours. 

After a decision has been made it should be carried out 
unless, in reconsidering, it is found to be a wrong one. 
Every unexecuted decision weakens the will. For example, a 
boy after sufficient reflection gives his word that he will help 
another boy with his algebra. Then he receives an invitation 
to a ball game. He wavers between duty and pleasure and 



184) Studies in Psychology 

decides to go to the game. His mother, hearing of it, re- 
minds him of the value of keeping his word and the boy is so 
impressed that he carries out his first decision. In the 
future, when similar decisions are to be made, he will be bet- 
ter able to stick to his word for having done so that once. 

The formation of habits helps in will training. A boy who 
has formed regular habits of study or play will be less 
tempted to neglect his occupations during the appointed 
hours. 

Oftentimes the will is trained by habits that at first were 
not agreeable. For example, a child who at first disliked to 
wipe dishes soon began to take a pride and pleasure in the 
neat performance of this task, as it became more and more 
of a habit. 

The formation of habits is very closely connected with 
imitation, our next factor in will training. Children are imi- 
tators. In the schoolroom, then, that is an important point 
to be considered. If the teacher tries to train her pupils 
in forming good habits she herself must first be punctual, po- 
lite, careful in speech, just and charitable, and practice all 
the virtues which she wishes her children to cultivate. Chil- 
dren will seldom excel the standard set at school and the 
same is true of the home influence in habit forming. 

Control of attention, memory, and imagination help to- 
ward will training. The boy who can be sufficiently inter- 
ested to concentrate or give attention for a prolonged period 
is getting valuable training in will development. This may 
be done by competition, rewards and other artificial means. 
The best way, however, is to create a desire to do the task 
because of satisfaction in the accomplishment of a duty. 
Control of imagination may be gained in the schoolroom by 
reading literature or listening to stories that will direct in 
the right way. Memory may be trained by repeating stories 



A Studif of Will 185 

told or read, and by memorizing fine passages of poetry or 
prose. 

The control of transitory emotions helps to train the will. 
Parents and teachers can do much toward this end by never 
allowing their o^vn emotions to become uncontrollable. If 
we are striving toward an ideal this can be done more easily. 
For example, if, on a ball field, a player has occasion to give 
vent to anger, the knowledge that his success depends on his 
coolness helps him to control the outburst. Many little de- 
vices such as bodily stiffness, relaxation, calm carriage, and 
facial expression, help in controlling emotions. 

Play is another factor in will training. In this a boy ac- 
quires the ability to decide quickly, to control his emotions, 
and, above all, to maintain the spirit of fair play or justice 
to his comrades. 

Another factor to be considered is obedience to civil laws. 
When an individual is led to conform to certain standards of 
conduct or action, whether agreeable to himself or not, he is 
training his will. 

Many acts may be planned with reference to the future 
and the will can be trained in this way. For instance, the 
schoolgirl who considers her studying as a means to an end, 
works in the way that will aid her most in her profession and 
thereby gets more will training than she who prepares each 
day's work as if it were for that day alone. 

Sacrifice or self-denial is valuable in the attainment of will 
power. This can be practiced in the schoolroom, on the 
play ground, and in the home. A teacher or mother who can 
make a child feel that he ought to sacrifice a little pleasure 
in giving another child his place in a game or in giving up 
some delicacy from his lunch basket to one who has not fared 
so well, has done not a little toward training his will. On the 
contrary, a girl who has not sufficient strength of mind to 



186 Studies in Psychology 

refuse an invitation for an automobile ride when she knows 
it to be her duty to stay at home and write a paper, has not 
made much progress toward force of character. 

The most powerful factor in will training is ideals. They 
are necessary to a strong will, because without them we 
should follow every impulse. Ideals are determined by the 
society in which a cliild is brought up. If a boy or girl finds 
that his parents or associates disapprove of certain acts and 
approve of others, he takes their approval for law. Their 
ideals become his. 

Development of ideals can be accomplished only indirectly. 
The greatest influence is a proper social atmosphere where 
one is in contact with people who live according to high stand- 
ards. Give the child the best in literature, music, and art. 
Well-told stories are powerful instruments in the hands of a 
mother or teacher. Precepts and proverbs also put the 
truth vividly before children. The celebration of such days 
as Washington's Birthday, Memorial Day, and other days 
which commemorate the great heroes of a nation should be 
encouraged. The ideal should be kept constantly before 
children and they, like the boy Ernest who had the image 
of the Great Stone Face always before him until he himself 
resembled it, will gradually embody it. 

If we keep ideals before us, they will be the guides of our 
habits, emotions, self-denials, obedience, decisions, and other 
means which we have discussed, until we acquire the ideal will 
— that which, beginning with the direction of our simplest 
movements, finally governs our whole lives. 



APPENDIX 

SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS 

Habit 

IT will be a valuable experience for each student to make 
a definite and determined effort to break some old habit 
and form a new one. He will learn much from the experiment 
b}^ keeping a diarj of successes and failures, with all discov- 
erable reasons for the same. In this study special attention 
should be given to the conditions under which habits are most 
likely to appear. 

Besides this, it will be worth while to carry on some simple 
experiment in learning and habit formation. A substitution 
test may be used, such as making the corresponding forms 
instead of the figures as indicated in the following diagram. 

1 will then = J 

2 will then = ] 
5 will then = Q 

and if X = then 10 = JX, etc. 

The experiment may be made by writing the numbers in 
order, using the forms instead of the figures and writing up 
to 20 each time. The number of seconds required to write 
the first time, the second time and so on should be recorded 
for ten series on two or more successive days. These records 
should be studied to see how much improvement in rate takes 
place, also whether it is greatest at first or later. 

Next the question of how the time is shortened should be 

187 



1 


4* 


7 


2 


5 


8 


3 


6 


9 



188 Studies m Psychology 

considered. Is it due chiefly to more rapid movements or 
to changes in the way of working, such as ceasing to look 
at the diagram or looking at or tliinking of one form while 
writing another? 

The relation of former habits of thought and writing 
should be noted to discover what helps and what hinders. 
This and the special character of habits may be further 
studied by using this code in copying numbers and in working 
examples. 

Memory 

The following experiments are similar to those given stu- 
dents and upon which their " results of tests " are based. 

(1) A dozen or more small objects may be placed in a 
shallow box or on a table and disclosed to view for about 
twenty seconds. Each subject then writes a list of the ob- 
jects. This will be the immediate reproduction list. Several 
days later each subject should write his recall list. The ex- 
perimenter should then read a list of things in the box and 
the subjects write all that they recognize, the recognition 
list. The experimenter, without letting it be known, should 
have included in the list the names of several objects that 
were not in the box but might have been. Following this the 
experimenter should ask as to the color or other characteris- 
tics of objects that were in the box and also of some that 
were not, to see if any false memories will appear. The sub- 
jects should also observe how they remembered and the 
causes of errors if any occur. 

(2) The effect of substituting description for actual per- 
ception may be tested by asking subjects to imagine what is 
in a box as its contents are described, then have the list re- 
produced and later recalled and recognized. 

(3) The effects of familiarity and previous knowledge 
may be studied by giving successively the following letters, 



Appendix 189 

nonsense syllables, words and sentences to be reproduced 
after one hearing. Explain the difference in the number of 
letters that can be reproduced in each case. 

Sentences 
The boy took the axe, called his 
dog and went across the field to the 
woods and chopped down three trees. 
He cut them into cord wood and then 
he went home to supper. 



r 


lev 


bird 


y 


dut 


rug 


a 


niv 


ear 


g 


paz 


slate 


n 


dib 


cap 


q 


tol 


door 


b 


ked 


box 


m 


feg 


tree 


w 


kip 


com 


c 


ruz 


axe 



(4^) An experiment such as is mentioned in the text as the 
Rousseau test may be given by hearing a connected passage 
of a half page read and its essential thoughts reproduced, 
then at a later time recalled. At another time give for re- 
production and recall fifteen unconnected words from the 
same passage. 

(5) Have the following passages read, reproduced and 
later recalled, to discover which is easier and why. 

The desk is 30 inches wide and five feet long. It is fifteen 
feet from the door, which is 3/4 feet wide and three inches 
thick. The road is fifty yards distant and the postoffice 
one and a half miles. 

The desk is sixty-five centimeters wide and two meters 
long. It is five meters to the door, which is one meter wide 
and seven centimeters thick. The road is forty meters dis- 
tant, and the postoffice two kilometers. 

Imagination 

No. 1. Notice what images are suggested by the follow- 
ing words, bell, orange, dog, piano, steak. In how many 



190 Studies m Psychology 

cases are they visual? auditory? tactile? olfactory? gusta- 
tory? kinassthetic, i.e., of motion? Try mentally to see, 
taste, smell and touch an apple and to hear the sound of it 
dropping on the ground. In which case can you make the 
image most like the corresponding sensation? 

No. 2. To test the extent to which images may be sub- 
stituted for sensations and perceptions: (a) Think of a 
long word as it looks, count the letters and spell it back- 
wards and note if you can do so as readily as if you were 
looking at the word, (b) Think of a bar of music as it 
sounds, count the notes and repeat backwards. 

No. 3. To test your constructive imagination as a sub- 
stitute for perception, imagine a three-inch cube, red on the 
outside and white inside, cut into inch cubes, and tell how 
many are all white, how many have one red side, how many 
have two red sides, how many have three? 

No. 4. To test your creative imagination plan a new 
finish and furnishing for a room, or mentally choose and 
arrange the materials of a dress, or make a design for a rug. 

Attention 

It will be a valuable exercise in determining what gives 
objects impressiveness or attention value to make a series of 
sheets upon which are colored papers or printed words. By 
varying in one respect at a time it will be possible to tell 
what color, what position, what size is most likely to attract 
attention and other changes may show the effects of contrast. 

After this, advertisements may be studied to discover their 
effectiveness in getting attention and in directing it to the 
essentials, viz., the nature of the article advertised and the 
name of the firm. 

Speeches and literature may also be studied to see how 
attention is secured by sensory means or by appeal to the 



Appendix 191 

imagination. The applications to teaching should then be 
reported. 

Concepts 

(1) Define a list of words noticing the degree of definite- 
ness of your concepts, then classify them as class or ab- 
stract. 

(2) Describe some peculiar concepts of children and the 
ways in which they were changed. 

(3) Make a list of inductions and deductions you have 
observed in the words or acts of yourself or companions. 

(4) Plan one or more lessons showing how pupils may be 
aided in forming and using concepts. 

Perception 

No student should study perception without experiment- 
ing. Too much space would be required to describe in detail 
a fraction of the interesting experiments that may be made. 
Any one with a little ingenuity, from the suggestions given in 
the text, can devise experiments for himself and others. 
Usually experiments may best be made by two persons, one 
acting as experimenter and the other as subject. It is gen- 
erally best that the subject should not know the exact condi- 
tions of the experiment and he should observe as carefully 
as possible his mental states as he gives judgment. The 
experimenter on his part should carefully arrange to make 
the conditions of the experiment uniform and to have it 
planned so that he can accurately observe or measure the 
results. 

Feeling 

(1) As a means of judging the comparative importance 
of sensations, physiological processes and imagination and 
thought in producing feeling, consider which you would pre- 



19^ Studies in Psychology 

fer: to be where all sensations of sight, sound, etc., were 
pleasant but with no interesting and agreeable thoughts, or 
to have pleasant thoughts in dreary surroundings ; or to be 
well, regardless of ideas and sensations, or to be sick in most 
agreeable surroundings and with enjoyable thoughts. 

(2) To judge of the importance of the various senses in. 
producing feeling, consider to which you would attach most 
importance in choosing a boarding and rooming place, 
the prospect of pleasant or unpleasant tastes, sights, sounds, 
odors, or touch sensations. 

(3) Make a complete outline of a plan for using your 
knowledge of what modifies feelings and the laws of their 
cultivation, in changing some feelings such as cheerfulnessi 
or despondency, good nature or irritability, love or dislike 
of literature, music, arithmetic, etc. 

Will 

(1) Is it possible to get a person who ordinarily shows 
little will power to act vigorously and persistently by keeping 
before him a strong motive for so doing? Describe from 
your experience how this may best be done. Which is most 
necessary in a teacher, the ability to arouse strong desire 
to do or to be able to show clearly Jiow to proceed.'' 

(2) Give examples of how one may make himself see the 
things he wishes to see, imagine and remember what he chooses 
and tliink of what he desires to keep his mind upon. 

(3) If doing a certain act would result in certain punish- 
ment equal to a day's imprisonment at once in one place, in 
two daj's' punishment a month later in another, or five days 
a year later in another place, in which place would the in- 
habitants be least likely to do the act.^* Discuss immediate- 
ness of results as a factor in choosing and in vigorous action. 



INDEX 



Acquiring, methods in, 29 if. 

After images, 53 

Aids in learning, 29 ff. ; in recog- 
nizing, S4 ff . ; in verifying, 38 flf. 

Appendix, 187 ff. 

Apperception, 130 ff. 

Assimilation, 119 

Association and habit, 14 ; of ideas, 
58 ff.; and perception, 119 

Attention, nature of, 61 ff. ; im- 
portance of, 63 ff.; signs of, 
64 ff. ; types of, 65 ff . ; and other 
mental processes, 67 ff; and 
memory, 67 ff. ; and habit, 68 ; 
and imagination 68; and inter- 
est, 69, and sensation, 69 ff . ; 
and movement, 70; and will 
power, 70; laws of, 71 ff.; con- 
ditions, 72; how to secure and 
hold, 74 ff.; development of, 
76 ff; and perception, 127 ff.; 
suggestions, 190 ff. 

Box test, 39 ff. 

Concepts, nature, 80 ff; difference 
between, and percepts, 81 ff . ; 
and images, 82; kinds, 82 ff.; 
ways of thinking, 83 ff.; forma- 
tion of incidentally, 85 ff.; de- 
velopment of, 87; formed and 
changed, 87 ff . ; correct and in- 
correct, 89 ff ; degrees of def- 
initeness, 90 ff. ; relation to rea- 
soning, 91 ; and language, 92 ff. ; 
formation through teaching, 
95 ff ; formal steps in teaching, 
97 ff ; teaching the use of, 103 ff.; 
suggestions, 191 ff. 

Constructive imagination, 54 

Creative imagination, 54 



Decisions, 174 ff. 

Deduction, 92, 103, 104 

Deductive lessons, 104 ff. 

Development, of imagination, 
55 ff . ; of attention, 76 ff. ; of con- 
cepts, 87 ff. ; of language with 
concepts, 92 ff. ; of perception, 
128 ff. 

Discrimination, 116 ff. 

Environment, in learning, 30 ff. 
Experiments in memory, 39 ff. 

Feeling, nature and use, 133 ff. 
varieties and classes, 134 ff. 
sources, 136 ff . ; instinctive, 135 
136, 143; organic, 137, 141 
senses, 137 ff.; ideas, 144 ff. 
control of, 146 ff., 168 ff.; laws 
governing, 150 ff.; cultivation of, 
153 ff.; summary of, 157 ff.; 
suggestions, 191 ff. 

Formal steps in teaching, 97 ff. 

Habit, nature of, 11 ff.; kinds, 13; 
and learning, 13 ff. ; and asso- 
ciation, 14; formation of habits, 
14 ff. 

Habit breaking, 20 ff. 

Habit versus memory, 26; and at- 
tention, 68; and perception, 118; 
suggestions, 187 ff. 

Hallucinations, 52 ff., 121. 

Hearing, 113 ff., 124, 139. 

Ideas, association of, 576; as 
sources of feeling, 144 ff. 

Illusions, 120 ff.; causes, 121; 
senses concerned, 122 ff. 

Images, in acquiring, 31 ff. ; men- 



193 



194 



Index 



tal, 50 ff.; kinds, 51 flF. ; and con- 
cepts, 52, 82 

Imagination, versus memory, 24 ff. ; 
nature and use, 48 ff . ; contrast 
with other activities, 48 ff . ; 
kinds, 53 ; reproductive, 53 ff ; 
constructive, 54; creative, 54 ff; 
development, 55 ff . ; and atten- 
tion, 68; and perception, 119; 
suggestions, 189 ff. 

Individual differences in memory, 
45 ff. 

Induction, 91, 98 

Inductive lessons, 98 ff. 

Intellect, 133 

Intensity, 30 

Interest and attention, 69 

Instinctive, 135 ff. 

Judgment and reasoning, 94 ff. 

Knowledge, 37; versus memory, 
25 ff.; and perception, 118 

Learning, aids in, 29 ff. 
Learning and habit, 13 ff. 

Memory, 48 ; nature, 23 ff. ; versus 
imagination, 24 ff.; versus knowl- 
edge, 24 ff . ; versus habit, 26 ; 
good and bad, 26 ff . ; use of, 
27 ff. ; grouping, 33 ff. ; age, sex 
and individual differences in, 
44 ff . ; and attention, 67 ff. ; and 
perception, 117 ff.; control of, 
170 ff.; suggestions, 188 ff. 

Mental images, 50 ff., 171 ff. 

Movement and attention, 70 

Organic, sensations, 116, 141; feel- 
ings, 137 

Perception, introduction, 108 ff.; 
sensory and motor factors in, 
109 ff.; mental factors in, 116 ff.; 
discrimination in, 116 ff.; mem- 
ory in, 117, knowledge in, 118; 
habit in, 118; imagination in. 



118 ff.; association in, 119; as- 
similation in, 119; of space, 
123 ff.; conditions favoring, 
126 ff.; development of, 128 ff.; 
suggestions, 191 

Percepts and concepts, 81 ff. 

Physiological, condition, 30 ff . ; 
laws of attention, 71; processes, 
141 

Pratt, Supt., 33 

Reasoning, relation of concepts to, 

91; and judgment, 94 ff. 
Recalling, aids in, 34 ff. 
Recognizing, aids in, 34 ff. 
Repetition, 29, 127 
Reproductive imagination, 53 ff. 

Sensation, in acquiring, 31 ff.; and 
attention, 69 ff. ; control of, 
165 ff. 

Sensations, organic, 116. 

Senses, as sources of feeling, 138 ff. 

Sight, 112 ff., 123, 138 

Smell, 114 ff, 125, 140 

Space perception, 123 ff. 

Strieker, 51 

Summary, of habit, 23; of mem- 
ory, 46 ff.; of nature of concepts, 
84 ff. ; of teaching concepts, 103; 
of feelings, 157 ff. 

Taste, 115 ff., 140 
Touch, 110 ff., 139 

Verifying, aids in, 38 ff 

Will, 133; and attention, 70; im- 
portance, 160 ff.; nature, 161 
control of movements, 164 ff. 
control of sensations, 165 ff. 
control of feelings, 168 ff.; con- 
trol of memory, 174 ff.; control 
of mental images, 171 ff. ; and 
decisions, 174 ff; strength of, 
177 ff.; freedom of, 180 ff.; train- 
ing, 182 ff ; suggestions, 192 



